Modern Ethiopian Monarchs Part Two

There were very serious external threats -- namely Egypt under Khedive Ismael. The Khedive had extended his sway far down the Nile Valley and saw the source of the Blue Nile in Ethiopia as vital to his interests. He is said to have had ambitions of a new Egyptian Empire that would dominate most of Northeast and Eastern Africa. The ease in which the British had swept into the Ethiopian highlands to defeat Emperor Tewodros had given the world a false impression of the strength and cohesion of the Ethiopian Empire. Outsiders did not have a clear picture as to how hated Tewodros had become in his later years, and thought that Ethiopia might be ripe for an easy conquest. However, Tewodros had managed to instill the belief that Ethiopian identity and loyalty to the Emperor should be foremost before regional interests and feudal alliegence to princelings. The first opportunity to begin the preparations for these designs came shortly after Yohannis IV ordered all Roman Catholic missionaries out of Ethiopia upon his coronation as Emperor. The Jesuits had been banned since the fall of Emperor Susneyos, but the French Lazarists had been increasingly active in Ethiopia since the early 1800's. The Swiss-born J.A. Werner Muzinger, who was serving as French consul in Massawa, sent an insulting letter to the Emperor threatening him with the same fate as Emperor Tewodros unless he treated the Catholic missionaries with more dignity. Muzinger turned to the Egyptian rulers of Massawa to protect the interests of the Catholics, and the Khedive was only too willing to take up this cause as a pretext for his further adventures in Ethiopia. Muzinger was granted the Egyptian title of Pasha and began to strategize about Egyptian expansion in the Horn of Africa. First, he engineered the capture of the district of Bogos, claiming that it was a rebellious Egyptian posession to begin with, even though it had long been paying taxes to the Ethiopian governor of Hamasien. Emperor Yohannis promptly wrote letters of protest to the crowned heads of Europe and to Khedive Ismael himself protesting this action. He called on France, Germany, Austria, Russia and Great Britain to join him in a Christian front against the Islamization and enslavement of his people by the Khedive. The Emperors of Austria, Russia, and Germany did not even reply to his letter. Queen Victoria replied, but she did so only to "assure your majesty of the good intentions" of Egypt and the Khedive. The Egyptians had inherited the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coastal possessions of the Ottoman Empire and were now ready to make a bid for the interior. Although a careful courtship was begun between the Egyptians and the King of Shewa, the Egyptians would earn Menelik's anger with their next move. Mohammed Rauf Pasha led a "scientific expedition" from the port of Zeila and marched unopposed to Harrar, laid seige to the city and seized it, bringing the rule of the Emir of Harrar to an end on October 11, 1875. Muzinger then summoned all the elders and chiefs of the Kottu Oromo tribes that surrounded Harrar to a meeting outside the city-state walls and proceeded to massacre them, ending any possibility that they might support the remnants of the Emirate with whom they had been living in peace for centuries. Menelik of Shewa had long regarded Harrar as his own and had seen his plans of re-conquest of Harrar thwarted by the Egyptians and Muzinger Pasha. Simultaneously, Muzinger Pasha himself, architect of the Khedive's dream of Empire, led another force west from the port of Tajura towards the Shewan highlands. He hoped that the rivalry between Emperor Yohannis and Menelik of Shewa would make both ripe for defeat at the hands of the Egyptian army. He calculated badly. Muzinger Pasha and his entire force was annihilated by Afar tribesmen who seldom allowed foriegners to cross their lands into the highlands. His death near Awsa marked a serious setback for Egyptian designs. However, they continued to encroach into the territories that neighbored their coastal holdings. As the Egyptians advanced, Yohannis IV continued to plead for European intervention, hoping that Khedive Ismael could be stopped without bloodshed. He even ordered the governors of Hamasein and Serai to withdraw in order to demonstrate his peaceful intentions in September of 1875. When the Egyptians reached Hamasein in October, however, Yohannis IV had his negarit war drums beaten and ordered a general mobilization. Within two weeks, he had assembled over 20,000 troops and began the march to meet the enemy. The Egyptians, on the other hand, numbered 2,000 and were led by the Danish Colonel Arendrup. The two armies marched towards each other and finally met in battle at Gundat (also called Guda-gude) on the morning of November 16, 1875. The Egyptians were tricked into marching into a narrow and steep valley and were virtually wiped out by Ethiopian gunners surrounding the valley from the heights. The Egyptians were well-armed, well-trained, and employed officers from the former Confederate Army of the American War Between the States/Civil War, as well as many Danes and Germans who were military experts. However, the maneuvers of the Ethiopian army tricked them into a situation in which their weapons and modern training became useless. News of this huge defeat was suppressed in Egypt for fear that it would undermine the government of the Khedive. Instead, Khedive Ismael quickly raised a new 15,000 man army, armed it to the teeth, and sent it off to exact revenge. This new army was led by Mohammed Ratib Pasha, who was assisted by a veteran of the Confederate army of the American Civil War, General Loring. The Egyptian and Ethiopian armies met at Gura on March 7, 1876 and fought a long and bitter battle that didn't end until March 9. Although the Egyptians were able to fight longer and better than they had at Gundat, they were again defeated and suffered vast losses. This finally nailed the lid on the coffin of Egyptian ambitions in East Africa . Yohannis IV had shown that he could lead his country to victory against invasion; consequently, his stock was raised considerably in both Egypt and all over the Ethiopian Empire.

These victories added even more captured modern armaments to the Emperor's army. In addition, a large amount of Turkish gold was captured. Emperor Yohannis sent this gold to Jerusalem to help support the impoverished monks who lived difficult lives at the Dur Sultan Ethiopian Monastery on the roof of the Holy Sepulcher. This act endeared him even further to the adherants and heirarchs of the Orthodox Church all over Ethiopia. Yohannis IV was now widely regarded as militarily without equal in the Empire and a valiant defender and supporter of his faith. Menelik of Shewa now recognized that he had little choice but to submit to the Emperor. Although several of his nobles, such as Ras Gobena Dachi, urged the Shewan king not to drop his claim on the Imperial throne, his much-trusted uncle Ras Darge advised patience and pragmatism. When news tht the Emperor had begun to march on Shewa arrived and that an advance force had actually entered Shewa, Ras Darge (whom Emperor Yohannis respected) sent a message of submission to Yohannis (with Menelik's full knowledge) and offered to mediate between the Emperor and the King of Shewa. A delegation of priests from Shewa was sent to the Emperor and he recieved them honorably. Negotiations went well, and the King of Shewa agreed to submit to Emperor Yohannis IV and recognize him as his liege lord. They agreed to meet in Wollo, and subsequently met at Boru Meda. Yohannis sat on a throne wearing his crown, and Menelik and his leading nobles entered carrying stones on their shoulders as a mark of remorse. Guns were fired in salute as the Shewan King and his nobles bowed to the Emperor. The Emperor accepted their submission while the women of Yohannis IV's court ulultated. Emperor Yohannis, return, recognized the hereditary right of Menelik and his heirs to the throne of Shewa. He also recognized him as overlord of Wollo.

King Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam

Menelik, King of Shewa

Emperor Yohannis IV was a deeply religious man. His devotion to the Orthodox Church was absolute and uncompromising. A relatively liberal monarch in most aspects, he was inflexible and very conservative when it came to religion. One of his first acts following the submission of the King of Shewa was to order the adherents of the schismatic Sost Lidet doctrine to appear before him at Boru Meda for a church council. The Sost Lidet doctrine taught that Christ had three births, the first at Creation from the Father, the second at the Nativity, from the Holy Virgin and the third from the Holy Spirit at the Baptism. This implied that Christ recieved his divinity at the Baptism and therefore previous to that he was not completely divine. The Sost Lidet doctrine was thus in direct violation of the Tewahido doctrine which stated that Christ had two births, at the Creation from the Father and at Nativity from the Holy Virgin. Tewahido maintains that the divine and human natures of Christ were united from the womb of the Virgin and that they formed a single unique nature, which was both divine and human and could not be separated or divided. The Sost Lidet also called into question the complete unity of the Holy Trinity. Thus, the Patriarch of Alexandria had declared the Sost Lidet to be heretical as well as the Tsega and Qibat doctrines which were closely related to it. The Sost Lidet doctrine was taught widely in Shewa and was strongest at the Debre Libanos Monastery. The Sost Lidet Monks appeared at the Council of Boru Meda and were ordered to recant their teachings. Those that did were restored to their posts, but those who did not had their tongues cut out to prevent them from disrupting the unity of the Church with their teachings. Yohannis ordered Menelik to suppress the Sost Lidet vigorously and stringently. Menelik, although a fairly religious man, was not very interested in doctrinal disputes, and it made little difference to him either way, so he had little personal problem enforcing the Imperial edict in Shewa over the objections of many important Shewan clerics. Emperor Yohannis IV was also, as previously seen, very anti-Roman Catholic, and couldn't abide the existance of Catholic missionaries in his Empire. He compelled Menelik to expell them all from Shewa, including Menelik's good friend Father Massias (later Cardinal). Menelik was much more reluctant to execute this particular order since the Catholics had been rendering valuable medical service, and many had become his personal friends. Yohannis' most repressive act , however, was reserved for the Moslems of Wollo. All the Moslems of Wollo were given six months to convert to Christianity or lose their property. Mohammed Ali, the ranking Moslem leader in Wollo, did so promptly and was Baptised as Michael Ali and granted the title of Ras (later King Michael of Wollo). The Emperor stood as his godfather. His rival, Abba Watew, also converted and Menelik of Shewa stood as his godfather.

In most matters other than religion, Emperor Yohannis was much more flexible. His approach to the unity of the Empire was much more federal than the vision of Tewodros II. He allowed the regional princelings a great deal of autonomy, even to the point of allowing them to recieve diplomatic missions from abroad and correspond with foreign heads of state, as long as they recognized his overlordship and paid their annual tribute. Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam was initially closer to the Emperor than Menelik of Shewa, but Yohannis' approach to a loose federal structure for his Empire would eventually encourage the ambitions of both these two vassal kings. He was known as a man who trusted others easily and was very charitable and generous in his personal life. He was even known to have not only forgiven a man who had been an avowed enemy of his father's, but he appointed this man to high office, earning his undying loyalty. However, these traits did not save him from rebellions and difficulties with nobles and Princes. In fact, his own nephew, Dejazmatch Dabbab Araya, would rebel against him and join the Egyptians in Massawa, aligning himself firmly in their camp. Others, such as the ruler of Hamasein, Ras Wolde Michael Solomon, clashed with the Emperor and also fled to Egyptian-held territory, although not necessarily to help them (even though he was with Egyptian forces at Gura). The family of the Shum Agame, decendents of Dejazmatch Sabagadis, a great warlord of the early Zemene Mesafint period, were also resentful of Emperor Yohannis and his Tembien/Enderta relatives.

The first challenge to the new order was Menelik's refusal to aknowledge Tekle Haimanot as king of Kaffa. Menelik claimed the entire south for himself and did not regard the King of Gojjam's title as king of Kaffa to be legitimate nor enforceable by either the King of Gojjam or the Emperor himself. The challenge to this title resulted in the Battle of Embabo (in northern Wellega), in which the King of Gojjam and his sons were all captured by the Shewans and carried off as captives to Entoto, Menelik's capital. During the trip to Entoto, Menelik insisted that Tekle Haimanot recieve all the respect and dignity due a king. He went out of his way to be friendly to him, even as he held him prisoner. What developed was a firm personal freindship between the two men that would last to the end of their lives, a rarity in the ruling circles of the day. As the two kings developed a strong relationship at Entoto, the Emperor steamed in rage at Adowa. That the two vassals had fought over a title that he believed was his, and only his, to grant angered him to no end. Both the Kings were summoned to Wollo to explain their conduct. Menelik was forced to hand over all captured weapons and valuables to the Emperor. He was also told that he would be stripped of his overlordship of Wollo as punishment. Menelik was not the only one who was on the receiving end of the Emperor's anger. The King of Gojjam was punished by the Emperor, recognizing that Menelik, King of Shewa, was the true ruler of Keffa. Tekle Haimanot was summoned by the Emperor so that Yohannis could return the crown of Gojjam that Menelik had captured and then surrendered to him. In an act of contempt, he had the crown handed back to Tekle Hamanot in a bread basket, an insult that the King of Gojjam took to heart and apparently never forgave. Yet Yohannis did not want to alienate the two kings too much, so he resupplied Tekle Haimanot with some new weapons and arranged for the marriage of Menelik's daughter Zewditu to his own son Ras Araya Sellassie, giving them Wollo to rule. These gestures did not appease the two kings, and it is probably these acts that encouraged them to enter into a secret pact to rebel against Yohannis when the opportunity occured.

Emperor Yohannis favored the town of Adowa and spent much time there. However, he built a large castle at Mekele, and it was there that he established his capital. He spent most of the beginning of his reign at Debre Tabor -- the ruins of his castle still stand. Although he was a Tigrean, and used Tigrigna as his first tongue, Amharic remained the official language of the Imperial court, and all official business and correspondence was conducted in this language. He conducted correspondence with Lord Napier, whom he considered a friend from the Magdalla campaign, and with other Europeans. Yohannis IV, deeply impressed when the British kept their pledge to withdraw from Ethiopia following the defeat of Emperor Tewodros II, trusted the British over all other foreign powers. However, he was hurt by the manner in which they had looted Magdalla, particularly the burning of the town and the churches. He wrote to Queen Victoria to appeal to her for the return of two particular objects looted by the British from Magdalla -- a copy of the Kibre Negest manuscript that Tewodros had seized from Axum, which was highly valued by the monks of the monastery of St. Mary of Zion, and the Kurate Re'esu Icon. The Kibre Negest Manuscript was returned, but the Queen replied that no trace could be found of the Icon and stated that she didn't think that the Icon had made it to Britain . The Icon, which depicted Christ wearing the crown of thorns, was probably the most revered Icon in the Ethiopian Empire. Emperors traditionally had the Icon accompany them into battle, and when oaths of loyalty were made to the Emperors, it was always done in the presence of the Icon. Tewodros had brought it to Magdalla, and it had disappeared after the looting of the citadel. Unbeknownst to Queen Victoria, Sir Richard Holmes, a director of the British Museum and who had accompanied the British forces to Magdalla, had purchased the Icon and kept it for himself. Ironically, Sir Richard was working as the Queen's librarian at Windsor while an exhaustive search was being conducted for the Icon and kept quiet. He did not reveal his ownership until after the death of Emperor Yohannis. The Icon was never returned to Ethiopia, and is often refered to as the "Lost Icon".

Emperor Yohannis IV was a fiercely loyal and honest man. He, therefore, placed a great deal of faith in the assurances of British friendship that he had recieved in exchange for his aid to them during their war against the Emperor Tewodros II. He could not understand how Britain, a Christian Empire like his own, could possibly ally itself with a Moslem enemy of Ethiopia's like Egypt . His complaints of Egyptian incursions into his domains and pleas for assistance against them fell on deaf ears in London . The Egyptians had inherited Massawa from the Turks and had later occupied Harrar, as stated above; both cities had long been claimed by Ethiopia. In addition to Massawa, the Egyptians had occupied the district of Bogos and encouraged the rebellion of Ras Wolde Michael Solomon of Hamasein against the Emperor. Hamasein was a source of trouble for the Emperor after he replaced the local ruling noble family of Ras Welde Michael with his loyal general, Ras Alula Aba Nega. The nobles of Hamasein had a record of loyal submission to Emperor Tewodros, so Yohannis distrusted them deeply. Alula Engeda was a humble born soldier who had risen to the title of Ras through his fiercly loyal service to Yohannis. Appointed ruler of Hamasein in the place of Ras Welde Michael, given the title of Ras and the nom-du-guerre of Aba Nega, he founded the city of Asmara and favored trying to force the Egyptians from Bogos and eventually Massawa. Yohannis, however, believed that he could get the English to pressure their ally, Egypt, out of these territories. With its new Suez Canal, Egypt was by far the more valuable ally to Britain, so Yohannis was basically ignored by Whitehall. Following the two invasion attempts by Egypt at Gundat and Gura, it became apparent to Yohannis that the English would not come to his aid against Egypt at all. Although somewhat disappointed, Yohannis still had deep faith in the assurances of Lord Napier that Britain was his friend. Suddenly, in 1881, the Mahdist rebellion swept through the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. One by one, the Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan were falling to the forces of the Mahdi, and it was swiftly turning into a complete military disaster. Cut off from retreating north from the Sudan into Egypt, the Egyptian forces realized that their only hope was to retreat to Massawa through Ethiopia . The British, as the true rulers of the Sudan through their Egyptian surrogates, were truly alarmed. They realized that Yohannis would not be very friendly towards the desires of the Egyptians after having fought them twice in the previous years. Therefore, in order to avert a total disaster in the Sudan, the British dispatched Admiral Sir James Hewitt to Adowa to negotiate with the Emperor of Ethiopia. Yohannis recieved the emissary of the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland and Empress of India with as much pomp and lavish display he could muster. After much discussion, agreement was reached and the Emperor and Admiral Hewitt (acting as official proxy for Queen Victoria) signed the Hewitt (or Adowa) Treaty on June 3, 1884. The treaty provided that Ethiopia would allow the Egyptian army to retreat from the Sudan through Ethiopian territory and further allow them to pass through to the Egyptian colony at Massawa. In exchange, the Egyptians would immediately cede the district of Bogos and the lowlands they occupied to the Emperor of Ethiopia, "to whom they rightly belonged". This was to be guaranteed by the British government. Furthermore, Yohannis was given to understand that if Egypt were to withdraw from Massawa, his rights and interests would be guaranteed by the British. To him, this meant that they would recognize his claims to the port. Yohannis allowed his erstwhile enemy Egypt to salvage what was left of its Sudanese forces by giving them safe passage through Ethiopia. This earned Yohannis the everlasting hatered of the Sudanese Mahdists, an act that would eventually cost him his life. Egypt was indeed planning to withdraw from Massawa to consolidate its forces in order to keep the Mahdist movement from spilling north into Egypt itself. Egypt was prepared to cede the port to the British or to whomever the British designated. Unwilling to overextend themselves in the region, the British were afraid that France would take advantage of a vacuum and seize the port from Ethiopia if Massawa were returned to Yohannis. Therefore, following private communications with the Italian government, a ship bearing a unit of Italian troops was secretly passed through the Suez canal and docked at Massawa. The Egyptians handed over the fortress to the Italians (who had been sent in by the British), and withdrew. The Italians raised their flag over Massawa, and the long confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia began.

Emperor Yohannis IV Receives an Italian Delegation

Note that the lower portion of the Emperor's face is covered, a sign of Imperial displeasure.

When the news of the Italian occupation of Massawa reached the Emperor, he was stunned. He couldn't believe that his friends the British would betray him in this way. Menelik of Shewa, who was cultivating a friendship with the Italian government in hopes of gaining their aid in his secret planned rebelion against Yohannis, was equally aghast when the Emperor informed him of this news. Menelik immediatly asked for an explanation of this event from the Italian envoy in Shewa, Count Pietro Antonelli, who himself was unaware of this development. The seizure of Massawa was not looked at kindly by anyone in the Ethiopian establishment and would earn the Italians widespread suspicion. Menelik tried to half-heartedly convince the Emperor that Italy would be a friendly neighbor at the behest of Count Antonelli, but it was only the begining of the long trail of blood that continues to this day. Menelik remained Italy 's friend, but he was now a bit more wary about their long-term intentions. However, Menelik's wife Taitu was enraged by the Italian action, and her deep suspicion of Europeans, and Italians in particular, dated to this event. The angriest was Ras Alula, who, from his seat at Asmara, was the figure closest to the theater of action. A few years earlier, the Afar Sultan of Ausa, Mohammed Hanferi, had sold the port of Asab to an Italian missionary, Father Guissepe Sapeto, who, in turn, sold it to an Italian commercial shipping company when he and all other Catholic priests were expelled by Yohannis IV. Now the Italian government had taken it over and was consolidating on the Red Sea Coast . With the new aquisition of Massawa, the Italians were gaining a foothold on the coastal lowlands. After an initially frigid reaction from the Emperor, he grudgingly accepted the seizure of the ports as something he could do little about. However, the Italians found the port of Massawa to be extremely inhospitable. The sea port is the hottest on earth, and the heat is unbearable during certain periods of the year. The Italians decided to establish an outpost in the highlands for them to retreat to when the port got too hot. They seized Saati and quickly connected it to Massawa by rail, road, and telegraph. They also expanded along the coast, seizing the port of Zula. They crossed the line metaphorically at Saati, however, and came into direct conflict with Ras Alula. Ras Alula complained to the Emperor and demanded that the Italians "go back to where they came from." The Emperor asked for an explanation, but the Italians simply stressed their need for cooler environs. Yet they soon decided to expand these environs and began to widen their area of control. By now, Ras Alula had had enough. His army suprised the Italian forces at Dogali and crushed them in battle; the Italians called it a massacre. Yohannis scolded Alula for fighting without his permission, but he did not punish Alula further. Instead, he mobilized his troops and marched north, demanding that the Italians withdraw form Saati. His vast army encamped near Saati and laid seige to the Italian garrison for days. But suddenly, the huge Ethiopian army rose up and left, much to the suprise of the Italians. The Mahdists had decided to seek vengeance and had attacked Ethiopia in the west.

The Mahdists began to raid Dembia, and the Emperor, occupied with events in the north, instructed King Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam to march against them. The King of Gojjam faced the Mahdists, was badly beaten, and fled the battle. The King's daughter was taken captive and later died, and the Sudanese had free reign over much of western Begemidir. The Emperor ordered Menelik of Shewa to come to Tekle Haimanot's aid, which he did. The two kings met and decided to openly announce their rebellion against the Emperor. Yohannis was enraged. Much to the relief and surprise of the besieged Italians, his army left Saati, swept south through Begemidir into Gojjam, and he launched a brutal campaign against Tekle Haimanot, destroying all in his path. Even Yohannis was struck by his own brutality in Gojjam, for he would later comment, "I don't know if it was the sins of the Gojjames or my own sin that brought this wrath down on them, but I destroyed Gojjam." Totally crushed, Tekle Haimanot pled for forgiveness and blamed the rebellion on Menelik. Once the submission of Gojjam was achieved, Yohannis sent a message to the Shewans. It ominously stated simply, "Wait for me, I am coming." Without the Gojjami support, the Shewans, although well-armed after years of shrewd arms purchases and accumulated wealth from their southern possesions, were not confident that they could face the Emperor and the Imperial Army. It was at this key moment that shocking news arrived in Yohannis' camp. The Mahdists had marched into Gondar and sacked the city, setting fire to all of its grand churches and looting the castles. Only the Debre Birhan Selassie (Trinity) church escaped unharmed (legend says the Archangel Michael himself stood before the main gates and a huge swarm of bees prevented the Mahdist approach to the church walls). The city was burned and its inhabitants raped and slain; the destruction was complete. Aroused by his deep devotion to his Orthodox Church, Yohannis abandoned his plans to protect his throne by invading Shewa and instead marched north to avenge his faith. Yohannis, together with his leading nobles, marched against the Mahdist Sudanese at Mettema and clashed on March 10, 1889 . The Ethiopians were able to breach the outer walls of the fortress and fiercely fought to overcome the citadel. Yohannis insisted on fighting at the head of his troops, even against the advice of his generals. It was a key mistake. A Mahdist sniper shot and wounded him badly. Quickly, the wounded Emperor was taken from the battle field to his tent; he soon realized that he was dying. Several years before, Yohannis' son, Ras Araya Selassie had died, which only left a young illegitimate child, Gugsa, whom Yohannis had never aknowledged as a possible heir. Now on his deathbed, the Emperor summoned Ras Mengesha, a man known to his subjects as the son of his brother Gugsa. Yohannis IV revealed that Mengesha was actually his own son and named him as his successor and heir. In the meantime, realizing that their Emperor was mortally wounded, the Ethiopian forces began to falter. One by one, Yohannis' generals and various relatives began to squabble over whether or not to recognize Ras Mengesha Yohannis as their ruler, and their infighting helped to accelerate the disintigration of Yohannis' great army. Emperor Yohannis IV, Elect of God, King of Zion, King of Kings of Ethiopia died at Mettema on March 11, 1889. The Mahdists, noticing the disarray in the Ethiopian ranks, broke out and began to chase the Ethiopians from the field. In their hasty retreat, the Ethiopians fled without the body of their King. The Mahdists reached the abandoned camp and found a coffin containing the body of a man accompanied by a few priests. On the coffin, however, was a magnificent Bible encrusted with gold and jewels. This was a big hint as to whose body this was, and they were soon able to confirm the body of the Emperor of Ethiopia, Yohannis IV. The Mahdists were jubilant. In an act that would horrify even his recent enemies Menelik and Tekle Haimanot, the body of Yohannis IV was beheaded and carried off to Khartoum, where his severed head was paraded through the streets along with the heads of other Ethiopian nobles and generals who had died at Mettema with him. His body would not be returned for forty years. Upon its eventual return, Yohannis IV was buried at Axum. He was hailed accross Ethiopia as the great martyr King, and even his enemies are said to have wept for him, calling him "Yewah" (innocent) and "Jegna" (brave hero).

His Imperial Majesty Yohannis IV, Emperor of Ethiopia

Upon the death of Yohannis, northern Ethiopia sank into chaos. Tigrai was rent asunder as various members of the Emperor's relatives began to vie for the throne, refusing to recognize Ras Mengesha as his heir. His long rebellious nephew Debab Araya made a bid to seize power, as did others. Some nobles voiced a preference for the young Gugsa Araya. Only Ras Alula, loyal to the bitter end, agressively championed the right of Ras Mengesha Yohannis to the throne. Taking advantage of the civil war that exploded in Tigrai, the Italians swept out of their enclave and seized all of the higlands of Hamasein, Serai, Akale Guzai and all of the lowlands north of the Mereb River. This was the region previously known as the Mereb Melash. The Italians proclaimed this new entity to be their new colony of Eritrea, conjuring the name from the Erythrean Sea (an old name for the Red Sea). To the south, Menelik of Shewa seized the moment. He was promptly proclaimed Emperor Menelik II, Elect of God, Conquering Lion of Judah, and King of Kings. Through Count Antonelli, he negotiated for Italian recognition of his claim to the Imperial throne in exchange for his recognition of their new land seizures, which had the effect of weakening the north in his favor. One by one, the nobles across the Empire began to flock to Entoto to pay homage to the new Emperor. The trickle of nobles headed to Entoto to kiss the feet of the new Emperor turned into a flood as more and more of them realized that the tide had turned in his favor. Even some of Emperor Yohannis' relatives that refused to aknowledge Ras Mengesha went to pledge alliegence to Menelik. In part because he needed to guarantee that Ras Mengesha and the north would remain weakend and partly because the Italian colony of Eritrea was now an established fact that he could do little to change, Menelik agreed to recognize the establishment of the Italian colony. The reign of Yohannis IV had come to an end, and the Crown had moved from Tigrai into Shewa. Emperor Yohannis IV is the last monarch in the world to fall in battle.

Ras Mengesha Yohannis, designated Heir to Yohannis IV, Hereditary Prince of Tigrai.

Following the ascendance of the House of Shewa to the Imperial throne, the descendants of Emperor Yohannis IV continued to rule the province of Tigrai by hereditary right until 1974. At first, Menelik II recognized Ras Mengesha Yohannis as ruler of all Tigrai. To keep the Prince appeased, Empress Taitu arranged for Ras Mengesha to marry her niece, Woizero Kefey Welle. However, Menelik refused to crown Mengesha King of Zion, which caused Mengesha to eventually rebel against Menelik. Menelik imprisoned him at Ankober and briefly replaced the House of Tigre with Ras Makonnen, his cousin and a Shewan Prince (father of Emperor Haile Sellassie). Eventually, Tigrai was divided between Ras Mengesha's son Seyoum Mengesha (made a Ras during the reign of Lij Eyasu) and Gugsa Araya Sellassie (made a Ras during the reign of Empress Zewditu, his one-time step-mother), who was Yohannis' grandson by Ras Araya Selassie Yohannis. Gugsa was given Eastern Tigrai with Mekelle as his seat, while Western Tigrai was given to Seyoum at Adowa. Following the death of Ras Gugsa, Eastern Tigrai passed to his son Dejazmatch Haile Sellassie Gugsa, who was married to Emperor Haile Selassie I's daughter Princess Zenebework. However, in 1935, Dejazmatch Haile Selassie became the first member of the Ethiopian nobility to cross over to the Italians and support the Fascist occupation of Ethiopia. He was made a "Ras" by the King of Italy, Vittorio Emanuelle, who was proclamed "Emperor of Ethiopia" by Mussolini. After the restoration of Emperor Haile Selassie I in 1941, this title was not recognized as legitimate, and Dejazmatch Haile Sellassie was declared a traitor. He was briefly a British prisoner of war in the Seychelles, but he was later placed under arrest at Ambo in Ethiopia. Ras Seyoum Mengesha was recognized as the hereditary Prince of all of Tigrai by the Emperor. Ras Seyoum Mengesha was killed in the massacre of the Green Salon during the 1960 coup attempt against the Emperor. He was succeeded by his son, Ras Mengesha Seyoum. Ras Mengesha Seyoum ruled Tigrai until 1974, when the revolution toppled Emperor Haile Sellassie. The Dergue released Dejazmatch Haile Selassie Gugsa from his arrest, but he died soon after, still widely regarded as a traitor by communist and non-communist alike. Ras Mengesha Seyoum formed the first resistance movement against the Dergue regime, the Ethiopian Democratic Union (EDU), and fought for many years. He went into exile with his children. His wife, Princess Aida Desta, granddaughter of the Emperor Haile Selassie by Princess Tenagnework, was imprisoned for 14 years by the communists with the other women of the Imperial family. She joined him in exile after her release. Ras Mengesha Seyoum has four sons, Lij Michael Sehul, Lij Yohannis, Lij Stephanos, Lij Jalliye and a daughter, Woizero Menen. His children are not only the heirs to the House of Tigre, but they are also members of the House of Shewa through their mother, as they are the great-grandchildren of Emperor Haile Selassie. Ras Menghesha Seyoum's elder sisters also have decendants who are members of both the Houses of Tigrai and Shewa. Woizerit-Hoy Kebedech Seyoum was married to Dejazmatch Abera Kassa, son of Ras Kassa Hailu, who was the grandson and heir of Ras Darge Sahle Selassie. Thus, her sons, Dejazmatchs Amha Abera, Amde Abera and Tariku Abera are members of the House of Shewa. Woizerit-Hoy Kebedech was a valiant warrior woman, who, upon hearing that her husband had been executed by the Italians, had gathered his army under her personal command and battled the fascist forces 14 times before retreating into the Sudan. This occurred in spite of the fact that she had only given birth days before she assumed command. Another older sister of Ras Mengesha was Princess Wolette Israel Seyoum. Initially married to Dejazmatch Gebre Selassie Baria Gabr, she had a son, Dejazmatch Zewde Geber Selassie, a current member of the House of Tigre, and a noted Ethiopian historian. He served as mayor of Addis Ababa and briefly as the last Imperial foreign minister under Emperor Haile Selassie, and he was known for his strong reformist sympathies during that reign. He was helping to draft the 1973 constitution that would have made Ethiopia a constitutional monarchy when the Dergue siezed power and ended that enterprise. Princess Wolette Israel, however, was later married to Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen, to whom she bore a daughter, Princess Ijigayehu, before they were divorced in 1940. Princess Ijigayehu would later marry Dejazmatch Fikre Selassie Hapte Mariam, heir to the Oromo ruling family of Leqa Neqemt in Wollega. Princess Ijigayehu Asfaw Wossen died from medical neglect while a prisoner of the Dergue in 1974. She had six children, Princes Samson, Bekere, and Yisaq, and Princesses Rahel, Aster and Meheret, who are members of both the Houses of Tigrai and Shewa, as well as the Oromo ruling family of Leqa Neqemt. Prince Bekere Fikre Selassie is the current Viceroy of the Crown Council in exile. The House of Tigrai is a large branch of the dynasty, but most of its ranking members closest to its head are also members of the House of Shewa, thanks to the policy of marriage between members of the two branches of the Solomonic dynasty.

Their Imperial Majesties, Emperor Menelik II, and Empress Taitu

BIRTH AND ANCESTRY

Emperor Menelik II was the son of King Haile Melekot of Shewa and Woizero Ijigayehu. King Haile Melekot was the son of the first king of Shewa, King Sahle Selassie and his wife, Bezabish. Woizero Ijigayehu was a woman in the service of Zenebework, the mother of King Sahle Selassie, and grandmother of King Haile Melekot. She is said to have been from Gondar and may have been one of the people brought to Ankober to help structure the Shewan court in accordance to the practices of the Gondar court, training young princesses in proper etiquette and behavior. Woizero Ijigayehu never married King Haile Melekot, but King Sahle Selassie legitimized Menelik by giving his recognition to Menelik being his grandson, and Haile Melekot, upon becoming King, recognized Menelik as his heir. Until Menelik became King of Shewa, he was more commonly referred to by his baptismal name, which was Sahle Mariam. The royal family of Shewa was decended from Abeto Yaqob, the son of the 16th century Emperor Libne Dingel, who had taken refuge in Shewa during the religious wars of Ahmed Gragn. Yakob's son Geram Fasil was the father of Emperor Susneyos the Catholic, and the ancestor of the Gondar line of the Imperial dynasty. Abeto Yakob's other son, Segwe Qal, was the one who would found the House of Shewa. Segwe Qal fathered Werede Qal, who fathered Libse Qal, who fathered Negassi (Negassi Christos), who was recognized as the first ruler of Shewa by the various Shewan nobles and the Emperor Eyasu the Great in Gondar. All of Negassi's ancestors had held the title of Abeto. Negassi's son Abeto Sibiste (Sebastian) succeeded his father, and declared that he was to be referred to as Merid Azmatch, his new title. The rulers of Shewa bore the additional title of Ras. Sibiste was succeeded by Abuye, who was succeeded by his son Amhayes (Amha Yesus), who was succeeded by his son Asfaw Wossen, who was succeded by his son Wossen Seged. Wossen Seged's son however, did not assume the title of Merid Azmatch upon the death of his father, but he instead proclaimed himself King Sahle Selassie of Shewa. He was succeded by his son, King Haile Melekot, the father of Menelik.

PATH TO THE THRONE

Upon usurping the throne from the hapless Emperor Yohannis III (the last Gondar Emperor), Emperor Tewodros II launched a campaign to reintegrate the various parts of the Empire under the direct rule of the Emperor and his central authority. Shewa was his prime target. Shortly after the Emperor's troops marched into Shewa, however, the king, Haile Melekot, died of an illness he had been suffering from for quite some time. With the death of the king, all resistance began to fall appart. The Shewans tried to rally around Sahle Mariam (Menelik), who was only 9 years old at the time, but news arrived that the mother and grandmother of the late king, Bezabish and Zenebework, had both gone and made their submissions to the Emperor in order to save their property from being confiscated. Menelik and his mother Ijigayehu, along his step-mother Tidenekialesh (widow of King Haile Melekot) and his uncle Darge were all arrested and put in chains. When the chained prince was brought before the Emperor, it is said he was weeping bitterly. When Tewodros demanded to know if the boy was crying because he had lost his crown and his wealth, nine-year old Menelik is said to have meekly replied, "No, I weep for my father, who I loved very much." Emperor Tewodros, who was known as a particularly harsh man, was so deeply touched by the little prince that he ordered the chains removed from the Shewan royals and permitted them to bury Haile Melekot with pomp. Tewodros was, however, mindful that Menelik was not only the heir to the Shewan throne, but he had the Solomonic blood which allowed him to be a claimant of the Imperial throne itself. Therefore, Menelik, his mother, his Uncle Darge Sahle Selassie, and other Shewan royals and notables were taken to the fortress of Magdalla and imprisoned there, although comfortably. Tewodros II would grow to have a very deep affection for Menelik and treated him as his own son. He would eventually marry Menelik to his own daughter, Alitash Tewodros. The three dowager queens of Shewa, Zenebework, and Bezabish were reinstated to their estates. The newly widowed queen Tidenekialesh was a very beautiful woman, and Tewodros ordered her to accompany him back to Gondar. Tidenekialesh, however, asked him if he would first permit her to make a pilgrimage to St. Mary of Zion in Axum. The Emperor agreed, and she departed for Tigrai. Upon arrival at Axum, however, after paying homage to the shrine, she promptly escaped to the coast, and, with much difficulty, was able to secure passage to the Holy Land. Upon arriving in Jerusalem, Tidenekialesh, ex-queen of Shewa, widow of King Haile Melekot, and step-mother of the future Emperor of Ethiopia, entered the Ethiopian Monastery at the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, and lived out the rest of her life as a nun. Tewodros II, upon hearing of the escape of the former Queen of Shewa is said to have remarked amusedly, "Oh Haile Melekot, what an unusual man, His wife takes holy vows, while his mother demands titles." ("Ye meest menagn,Ye Inat shumet lemagn!") This is in contrast to usual cusom in Ethiopia, where it is the mothers who enter convents and widows that demand portions of their husband's estates and titles. Emperor Tewodros II, recognizing the loyalty of the Shewan population to the royal house, appointed Haile Michael Sahle Selassie to rule over Shewa -- with the restored title of Merid Azmatch rather than king. Merid Azmatch Haile Michael would dutifully carry out the orders of the Emperor for several years. As the brother of the late king, and son of King Sahle Selassie, most of the Shewan royals and nobles found him to be acceptable. However, Abeto Seyfu Sahle Selassie, another brother of the dead king, refused to acknowledge Tewodros as Emperor or accept his appointed administration in Shewa. He led a band of guerilla fighters that roamed the Shewan countryside for years, inciting the peasantry to rebellion. Merid Azmatch Haile Michael, although very meticulous in following the Emperor's directives and paying his tribute on time, never launched an agressive campaign against his brother, and his brother returned the favor by focusing his rebellion on the Emperor rather than on the Merid Azmatch.

Although Bezabih tried despirately to muster an army to oppose the return of the Royals to Shewa, his soldiers began to desert to the banner of "the son of our master". Even as Bezabih marched his army out of Ankober to meet the royalist forces in battle, it is said a woman stood on a hill top and cried out to the passing soldiers, "What are you doing, where are you going, will you really march against the son of your kind master, the son of your good king?" It is said that many more soldiers began to desert after this incident, and Bezabih recognized that all was lost. Rather than fighting against him, the soldiers and people of Shewa were pouring into Menelik's camp, weeping and ulultating, beating drums and rejoicing at the return of the heir of Haile Melekot. Bezabih sent emmissaries humbly asking forgiveness and saying that he was "only keeping the throne safe for my king". Bezabih was deposed, and Menelik was proclaimed King of Shewa at Ankober in August 1865.

Not long after his return to Shewa, Menelik established a liason with an older woman whom he refered to as his wife even though this "marriage" was not sanctioned by the church. His second wife was Woizero Bafena, a much married noblewoman from Merabete who was widely disliked and resented at court. Widely regarded as a plotting ambitious arriviste, Bafena earned the resentment of almost all of Menelik's relatives and followers. She would later act as a spy for Emperor Yohannis IV and had ambitions for her sons by previous husbands. Menelik, however, also fathered a daughter Zewditu (destined to be the eventual Empress of Ethiopia) by a Woizero Abechi and would raise Zewditu himself after her mother met an untimely death. Menelik would also father a second daughter, Shewaregga, mother of Lij Eyasu, his eventual heir. Shewaregga's mother was a woman named Desta who may very well have been a domestic servant in the service of Menelik's aunt Tenagnework or of his mother Ijigayehu. He is also reputed to have had two children by a Gurage woman named Wolete Selassie who did not survive to adulthood. Rumors persist to this day that Ras Birru Wolde Gabriel and Dejazmatch Kebede Tessema were also the Emperor's illigitimate sons, but they were never publicly aknowledged as such. Menelik did not aknowledge Shewaregga as his daughter until much later. She was first married to Wedajo Gobena and then to Ras Michael of Wollo and would bear Menelik three grandchildren, Wossen Seged Wodajo, Eyasu Michael and Zenebework Michael.

In 1868, upon the defeat and death of Tewodros, it is said that there was celebration throughout Shewa, as Tewodros had become a hated oppressor there. Menelik did not join his subjects in their joy. It is said that he shut himself away in his rooms and wept for the man who, in spite of being a political enemy, had been like a father to him. Menelik had sent messages of support to the British, but he had not provided direct aid to them, so he did not benefit with gifts of weapons as Dejazmatch Kassa Mercha did. The most tangible benefit from the fall of Emperor Tewodros was the release from Magdalla of Menelik's much loved uncle, Darge Sahle Selassie. Menelik created Darge a Ras upon his return to Shewa. Of all the people at Menelik's court, Darge was the only one who would dare to rebuke or scold Menelik when he felt it was called for. He was always deeply respectful of Menelik as King, but he was also the stern yet affectionate uncle who could nag Menelik about paying his debts on time. He became the most influencial prince in the Shewan court.

Upon news of the Emperor's death at Magdalla, Menelik promptly claimed the Imperial throne for himself and began to use the title of "King of Kings". However, Wagshum Gobeze had proclaimed himself Emperor Tekle Giorgis III, and Dejazmatch Kassa Mercha refused to recognize either of them. Tekle Giorgis III began negotiations with the Shewan royals, and the other major branch of the Solomonic Dynasty, the royal family of Gojjam. He fought and removed Desta Gwalu of Gojjam and then replaced him by a rival member of the Gojjam branch of the dynasty, Balambaras Adal. In the final result, he gave the title of Ras to Adal and also gave him his sister Laketch Gebre Medhin in marriage. With the Shewans, he arranged for the marriage of his half-brother Hailu Wolde-Kiros to the daughter of Ras Darge, Woizero Tisseme. Just as he was begining to feel secure that Shewa and Gojjam would come to accept his rule, Kassa Mercha of Tembien defeated Tekle Giorgis at Assam and deposed him. Following the defeat of Tekle Giorgis, and the coronation of Kassa as Emperor Yohannis IV, Ras Adal found it wise to submit and recognize the new Emperor. He was rewarded with the title of King of Gojjam and Kaffa, with the name Tekle Haimanot. Menelik set out to invade Gojjam in 1877 to challenge Tekle Haimanot's claim to Kaffa, but he had to turn back because of two attempts to dethrone him. First, his paralyzed uncle, Merid Azmach Haile Michael, declared himself king. The old Prince was able to march a force into Ankober and set the town on fire, but his rebellion was crushed by Menelik loyalists. Then, much to his shock, Menelik hardly had recovered from this betrayal from within his family, when he was again betrayed, this time by his own wife, Woizero Bafena. She had used Menelik's seal to issue false decrees, seized the treasure of the House of Shewa with many arms, and transfered them to the fortress at Tamo. She also transfered a royal prisoner, Dejazmatch Meshesha Seyfu, Menelik's cousin and rival claimant to Tamo as well. Her intention was to put her own son from a previous marriage on the throne, removing any threat from Meshesha Seyfu as well. However, Dejazmatch Meshesha Seyfu was able to win the loyalty of the soldiers in Tamo, who turned on Bafena and ended her plot. It was suspected that Emperor Yohannis had a hand in encoraging these plots. Meshesha Seyfu and Menelik were reconciled and Bafena admitted her guilt, blaming her actions on jealousy aroused by Menelik's attentions to the lovely young Wolete Selassie, who had become his mistress. Bafena, already widely hated at court was banished in disgrace. However, a temporary reconciliation between Menelik and his wife was arranged by her freinds. This attempt at reconciliation failed, largely because Menelik recognized that he needed an heir, and that Bafena was too old to produce more offspring. As such, they were formally separated. For a long time, when pretty young women were presented to the King, and people discreetly told him to consider candidates for his hand in marriage or comment on the beauty of these ladies, Menelik would sadly say, "You ask me to look at these women with the same eyes that once looked at Bafena?", which meant that after the beauty of Woizero Bafena, these girls paled in comparison. These happenings did not strengthen his hand against Yohannis IV. Finally, the Emperor at the head of a large army crossed into Shewa in January of 1878. Menelik decided further claims on the Imperial throne were unwise, so he decided to submit. A delegation of priests was sent to the Emperor to inform him, and a peace was quickly negotiated.

The Submission of the King of Shewa took place in Wollo on March 26,1878 . The details of the ceremony of the submission of the Shewan king were carefully worked out. The Emperor was seated on his throne wearing his crown, and the Shewan king and his leading nobles entered the hall carrying stones of repentance on their shoulders, as mentioned earlier. They then fell before the Emperor and kissed the ground before him as guns fired in salute and the women of Yohannis's court ulultated. Then the Emperor placed a crown on the head of Menelik, confirming his title of King of Shewa for himself and his heirs. The Emperor also confirmed him as overlord of Wollo. In connection with this, Menelik promised to pay his annual tribute to the Empire, provide troops when needed, and eliminate all heretical teachings in his kingdom. This meant the immediate expulsion of all Roman Catholic clerics, including Menelik's good friend the Italian Father (later Cardinal) Massaia, the French Father Taurin de Cahagne, and all Protestant missionaries. Emperor Yohannis also called a council of the Orthodox Church at Boru Meda to resolve the schisms developing in the national church. The Council of Boru Meda was convened in the presence of the Emperor of Ethiopia, the King of Shewa, the Archbishops Petros, Lukas and Matiwos, and the Echege of Debre Libanos. Emperor Tewodros had tried to stamp out the Sost Lidet doctrine by decree, but had failed, as the Shewans had returned to this creed upon the return of Menelik to his kingdom. The largely Shewan delegation of the followers of the Sost Lidet doctrine at Boru Meda held that Christ had three births, one from God the Father at Creation, the second from the Virgin at Christmas, and the third at the Baptism from the Holy Spirit. The official Tewahido doctrine held that Christ had only two births, from the Father at Creation and the Virgin Mother at the Nativity. They argued that the Baptism was a revelation of Divinity, not a Birth from the Holy Spirit. They further stated that the Sost Lidet compromised the unity of the Holy Trinity by implying that Christ was not fully Divine until after the baptism. This went against the teachings of Tewahido that argued that Christ had one nature that was a complete Union of the Divine and Human that was inseparable. This was the argument that the Church had upheld since the council of Chalcedon and which had caused the Oriental Orthodox to break with the rest of Christendom. The bishops confirmed that the Tewahido was the correct doctrine upheld by the Patriarch of Alexandria, so the Sost Lidet were ordered to recant their teachings. Those who failed to do so had their tongues cut out on the Emperor's orders "so that they may no longer poison the faithful with their heretical teachings".

Menelik as King of Shewa

Menelik accepted all of these conditions and returned to Shewa. However, he was not prepared to accept the designation of King Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam as king of Kaffa as well. He had long regarded the southern Oromo kingdoms, principalities and various other ethnic territories as part of his hegemonic sphere. He was determined that Shewan hegemony would continue in the south, so he marched on Gojjam. Menelik fought with Tekle Haimanot at Embabo and captured the King of Gojjam and two of his sons, bringing them back to his new capital at Entoto as his prisoners. During this time, Tekle Haimanot and Menelik for the first time speant significant time together and got to know one another. Menelik ordered that the Gojjam royals be treated appropriately with the same respect due to Shewan royals. Unexpectedly, King Tekle Haimanot and King Menelik got along famously, and formed a firm friendship that would last for the rest of their lives. Emperor Yohannis IV however, was furious. His two vassal kings had gone to war without submitting their quarrel to him first. They had fought over a royal title that he believed was his and only his to give. In anger, he ordered Menelik to bring his royal prisoners to Wollo, where he released them. He seized the weapons and booty that Menelik had captured from Tekle Haimanot and gave them back to the King of Gojjam. He also stripped Menelik of his overlordship of Wollo and granted it to his own son, Ras Araya Selassie. However, he was equally enraged with Tekle Haimanot, and in an insulting gesture, he returned the Crown of Gojjam, that Menelik had handed over, back to Tekle Haimanot in a bread basket. However, in a conciliatory gesture to the King of Shewa, he confirmed Menelik as King of Keffa and arranged the marriage of his son Ras Araya Selassie Yohannis, to Menelik's daughter, Zewditu. This was supposed to appease Menelik somewhat for his loss of Wollo, as it was now to be ruled by his son-in-law and daughter. The two kings however were both resentful of the harsh treatment they had received from the Emperor and began to secretly plot their eventual rebellion together.

King Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam

On April 29th, 1883, at Easter Sunday midnight mass at the Church of Medhane Alem (Savior of the World) at Ankober, Menelik King of Shewa and Keffa married Taitu Bitul. Taitu was the daughter of Ras Bitul Haile Mariam, brother of Dejazmatch Wube Haile Mariam of Simien, who was the archenemy and rival of Emperor Tewodros II, and his eventual father-in-law. Taitu was thus the first cousin of the late Empress Tiruwork Wube. Her father was the direct descendant of a daughter of Emperor Susneyos the Catholic. She was thus of Imperial blood. Bitul's mother Hirut was the aunt of Ras Ali, the last Re'ese Mekwanint and Enderase of the Gondar period who was overthrown by Emperor Tewodros II. Taitu was thus a member of the Yejju Oromo dynasty that had ruled Ethiopia and controlled the puppet Gondar Emperors during much of the Zemene Mesafint period. Emperor Tewodros II's first wife Tewabech was therefore also a cousin. Although twice an in-law of Emperor Tewodros, she was the daughter of two families with a deep-seated hatred of the Emperor Tewodros, and she had suffered imprisonment at his hands. Taitu's mother was Woizero Yewubdar, a minor noblewoman from Gondar. Her brother Ras Wele Bitul would become ruler of Yejju and Semien. She had a sister Desta Bitul, and another brother, Alula Bitul. Wele and Alula Bitul had been prisoners at Magdalla with Menelik and had become his good friends there. They had often spoken of their beautiful sisters, and now that Menelik was the bachelor King of Shewa, they decided to introduce him to them. Initially, they had thought to promote their sister Desta as a potential wife for the King. He was introduced to her first, and after commenting on her beauty, he was then introduced to Taitu. It is said Menelik turned to Wele and said, "Why did you keep back the most beautiful for last?" Although Taitu would never have any children, her siblings and cousins had many decendents that Taitu raised and eventually married into most of the major noble and princely families in the Empire. She would become one of the most powerful and remarkable women in Ethiopian history. With such a history, it is not suprising that Taitu would have a reputation of being a proud haughty woman. She was the ultimate aristocrat, and her dynastic credentials were the equal of any, so her pride was not just based on being the wife of Menelik, but because she was Taitu of Simien and Yejju, daughter of Bitul. She was a devout daughter of the Orthodox church and a woman of strong conservative views. Her admirers have called her a great nationalist, a superior diplomat and negotiator, a great strategist, and the decisive half of the partnership (Menelik being famous for taking his time with decisions). Her detractors have called her a nepotist, power-hungry, and xenophobic. That she would eventually become one of the most powerful consorts in Ethiopian history is not disputed.

About the time of their marriage, the King and Queen of Shewa set about building a new church dedicated to the Holy Virgin on Mt. Entoto. Menelik built a new palace there, and then moved his official seat there from Ankober. The mountain top town was a strategic location, but it was cold, and as more people followed the court there, firewood and water became scarce. The palace that Menelik built there was smaller and not nearly as imposing as the residence he vacated in Ankober and was, in fact, described as ramshackle by some visitors. The focus of the royal couple's development plans was clearly the Church of St. Mary. It would serve as Shewa's capital only briefly. To the south of Entoto's mountainous peak was a broad hilly plateau, well-wooded and intersected by the Finfine, Kebena and Akaki rivers. Near the Finfine river were some hot springs that the Oromos had refered to as the "FinFine", a description of the spraying action of the hot springs . These springs had given the nearby river and area their name. Taitu and her ladies began to frequently leave the cold of Mt. Entoto to bathe in the therapeutic mineral springs. Her visits to this natural spa became so frequent that she built a house nearby and was soon followed by other noblemen and women and eventually their households. Their new houses were expanded and soon the little settlement had grown into a town as their servants and soldiers also built homes around their lords' homes; this attracted merchants. The climate was much more pleasant than frigid Entoto, wood was more widely available for fuel and building, and water was plentiful. Taitu named the new town she had founded (officially in 1887) " Addis Ababa " which translates to "New Flower". Addis Ababa would become Menelik's permanent capital, and it remains the capital of Ethiopia today.

Menelik, around the time that he was proclamed Emperor and King of Kings.

Article 17 of the Treaty of Wuchale (or as the Italians spelled it "Uccialli") was to have huge consequences. In the Amharic version, it stated that The Emperor of Ethiopia could avail himself of the services of the government of the King of Italy in his dealings with the powers of Europe if he so wished -- a harmless clause. The Italian version of the same clause 17 stated that the Emperor of Ethiopia "consented" to use the government of the King of Italy for his contacts with the powers of Europe. This was phrased as a requirement that made it compulsary. It effectively established an Italian protectorate over Ethiopia . At the time, however, the Ethiopian side was unaware of this. It was an old trick used by colonialists to entrench themselves that had been used before elsewhere in Africa. Treaties were often signed by kings, chiefs and elders who did not realize the legal ramifications. In Ethiopia, though, due to the careful court diplomacy that existed in the Empire for centuries, the deception of mistranslation was employed. Unaware of what had happened, the new Emperor prepared for his coronation and duly notified the monarchs of Europe of his ascent to the Throne of Solomon. Letters were sent to Queen Victoria of Great Britain, King Umberto of Italy, Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany and President Carnot of the French Republic . These letters would prove to be the time bomb that would explode in Antonelli's face. In the meantime, Menelik sent his cousin Dejazmatch Makonnen Wolde Michael (later Ras) to Rome to observe the Italian ratification of the treaty of Wuchale. Makonnen was the son of Woizero Tenagnework Sahle Selassie, daughter of King Sahle Selassie, sister of King Haile Melekot, and aunt of Emperor Menelik II. Athough there is a long tradition in Ethiopia of monarchs holding their close relatives in deep suspicion, Menelik never had any towards Makonnen. Makonnen grew up in Menelik's household and was close to him. Menelik trusted him as he trusted few others and treated him as a younger brother or son. Makonnen whole-heartedly returned his cousin's affection and would serve him loyaly for many years as his de facto Foriegn Minister, diplomat, domestic negotiator, and general. Ras Makonnen's son would eventually become Emperor Haile Selassie I. Dejazmatch Makonnen went to Italy and was treated to a tour that accentuated Italian might. He was given tours of military installations, watched military drills, and toured factories and munitions depots. He was recieved by the Premier Crispi and by King Umberto and Queen Margarita as well. For his visit with the royal couple, he was taken from his hotel in a royal carriage to the Venezia Palace . In the Ethiopian manner, he bowed to King Umberto from the door to the Throne Room, walked halfway to the King and bowed again, almost to the floor, and then went down on his knee and pressed his forehead to the floor when he reached the king. He was impressed with the granduer of the Palace, of Rome and Naples, and the strength and sophistication of the Italian military. Although he had met many Europeans in his life, Makonnen must have been overwhelmed by the technological advancements of Europe. However, the purpose of the visit was the Treaty of Wuchale, which came up before the Italian Parliament and was ratified. Before it was ratified, Ras Makonnen was persuaded to sign an additional convention to the Treaty on October 1st, 1889 at Naples that fixed the boundry of the Italian territory as of the de facto position of Italian troops on that very day. What the Prince did not realize, but which the Italians knew very well, was that the Italian army, taking advantage of the weakness of Ras Mengesha and war torn Tigrai, had marched deep into Tigrai and occupied numerous localities that had never been ceded in the original treaty. He also didn't know that on October 11, 1889, Prime Minister Crispi had officially notified, by letter, twelve European governments, and the United States, that as provided by Article 17 of the Treaty of Wuchale, "..in all matters dealing with other governments, the Empire of Ethiopia would be represented by the Kingdom of Italy ." An Ethiopian student then residing in Rome named Afework Gebre Yesus (who would play a role in Italian affairs in Ethiopia through four reigns) came to Makonnen's hotel suite and insisted on seeing the Prince. He then showed the Prince an article in an Italian newspaper that stated that Ethiopia had become an Italian protectorate. A suspicious Makonnen asked Count Antonelli who had traveled with him to explain this. Antonelli told the prince that Afework had a poor understanding of Italian. Ras Makonnen accepted this at face value. Unable to read or understand Italian, all he had before him was the Amharic version of the Treaty that did not establish a protectorate. Thinking all was well, Dejazmatch Makonnen returned to Ethiopia .

Emperor Menelik II was crowned as Emperor on November 3rd, 1889 . He was crowned at St. Mary's Church on Mt. Entoto by Abune Mattiwos, who now assumed the senior position in relation to Abune Petros (who had crowned Emperor Yohannis and remained in northern Ethiopia). Two days later, Emperor Menelik crowned his wife as Empress Taitu, "Light of Ethiopia". The celebrations were magnificent, and thousands assembled to pay their respects to the new monarchs. Ethiopia was not trouble-free, however. Ras Mangasha and Ras Alula still refused to accept Menelik as Emperor. A huge epidemic among the cattle in the Empire had decimated not only the sources of beef and mutton, but also the animals used for transporting food and plowing fields, resulting in widespread famine. In December of 1889 Menelik marched north to impose order on Tigrai and recieve recognition from the still rebellious Ras Mangasha and Ras Alula. On arriving in Tigrai, he found that the Italians had advanced much further than the boundary set down in the Treaty of Wuchale, and that on January 29th, 1990, the Italians, under the command of General Orero, had occupied both Adowa and Axum. Ras Mangasha and Ras Alula, greatly weakened by the famine and the infighting with the other Tigrean lords, were helpless to stop them. Nevertheless, Emperor Menelik marched into Mekelle and, on February 23rd, he presided over a ceremony of submission in which the nobility of Tigrai came forward to pay him homage and recognize him as the legitimate Solomonic Emperor of all Ethiopia. Ras Mangasha sent messengers saying he would submit in 20 days. Menelik agreed to allow him time, aknowledging that Ras Mangasha was entitled to a separate ceremony as he was the son of an Emperor. His primary concern at the moment was his anger over the occupation of Adowa and Axum by General Orero. The general sent messages assuring the Emperor that his occupation of these towns was to bring stability and feed the starving masses, not to conquer territory. The Emperor was somewhat appeased by the arrival of Dejazmatch Makonnen from Italy with a fresh and large supply of weapons purchased from Rome. It was at this point that Makonnen told the Emperor of the convention that he had signed in Rome that had fixed the borders to the position the Italian army held on October 1st. Much to the horror of Menelik and his officials, it was learned from the Tigreans that the Italians had advanced far beyond the boundary set down in the Treaty of Wuchale by that date, and that, in all likelyhood, they had played a nasty trick on Makonnen. The Tigreans were especially angry, and many in Menelik's circle were upset with Makonnen and gossiped about bribery. The Emperor, however, knew Makonnen much better and did not hesitate to elevate him to the title of Ras and enlarge his governorate of Harrarge. The Italians withdrew from Adowa and Axum but did not move back further than their lines as they were on October 1st. They agreed to discuss the issue of the borders further. Count Antonelli had returned to Ethiopia with Ras Makonnen and tried to convince the Emperor of the need to accomodate the Italian desires as far as the borders in the interests of keeping the Tigreans pacified. Menelik returned to Shewa with Antonelli continuing to make a case for the Italian side. Menelik was not very convinced. Antonelli also announced the appointment of a new Italian representative in Ethiopia that would be replacing him. He was Count Augusto Salimbeni, a gossipy Italian aristocrat and engineer who had worked for some years building a bridge and other projects for King Tekle Haimanot in Gojjam. His tenure would be disasterous from the very start. Just before his official ceremony of presenting his credentials at Menelik's palace at Entoto, he was thrown from his mule after having donned his official diplomatic court attire. He arrived shaken and soiled, and, much to his anger, recieved a rather casual informal reception, which may have been a calculated display of royal disfavor at recent Italian actions on the border. The count was not even offered the customary glass of Tej (honey wine) -- no large army awaited him to march him up to the palace, no great fanfare, and no beating of drums or blowing of trumpets. In relation to the elaborate ceremony and pomp that usually surrounded the reception of the representatives of foriegn monarchs, this reception seemed unusually frugal. Salimbeni called the reception "disgusting". Nevertheless, Salimbeni aggressively promoted the Italian desires for the border between Ethiopia and the new Eritrean colony. He was busy with these arguments and, almost as an after-thought, handed over letters that he had brought with him from Europe that had been sent to Emperor Menelik from Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Queen Victoria of Great Britain, King Umberto and Queen Margarita of Italy, as well as Prime Minister Crispi and Signor Pisani. The European leaders were following what the Italians had informed them about the Treaty of Wuchale and were carrying out their contacts through the Italian representative. It was Queen Victoria 's letter that would take the trouble over the Treaty of Wuchale over the brink. In her letter, the British Queen acknowledged the elevation to the Ethiopian throne of Menelik and his desire to send representatives to England and France . However, she also noted that, as the Emperor of Ethiopia had consented to "avail himself of the government of Italy " for all his contacts with foriegn governments according to the Treaty of Wuchale, she had sent "..our friend, the King of Italy, copies of Your Majesty's letter and of Our reply." This letter, once translated a few days later, caused a reaction of such fury on the part of the Ethiopian monarch that it took Salimbeni and his staff quite by surprise. Unlike the departed Antonelli, Salimbeni was completely unaware of the differences between the Amharic and Italian versions of Article 17 and was bewildered. Menelik wanted to know what this meant. He had never agreed to give Italy control over his relations with other governments. With the Tigrean/Eritrean border question added on to this issue of Italian assumption of a Protectorate, tempers had risen considerably. Empress Taitu is said to have asked her husband in anger "How is it that Emperor Yohannes never gave up a handful of our soil, fought the Italians and the Egyptians for it, even died for it, and you, with him for an example, want to sell your country! What will history say of you?" Emperor Menelik II of course had no intention of selling anything. He summoned the Italian diplomat and said to Salimbeni "This country is mine and no other nation can have it. I thought we had settled everything....you asked for more and I gave you all of Hamasein. Now you want more?". Things were about to get uglier. Hours of attempted discussion on the matter turned into days, next into weeks and then into months. When the Italians realized that they were running up against a wall, they began to look for other alternatives or potential leverage. In the north, General Orero attempted to make a separate deal with Ras Mengesha Yohannis in Tigrai over the border. Once he had submited to Menelik, however, Ras Mengesha informed General Orero that it was not his place to give what belonged to the Emperor of Ethiopia and that he had naturally informed His Imperial Majesty of all that had been discussed between him and the Italians. Around the same time, in an attempt to forment sympathy for Italy among the Muslims of Ethiopia, an Italian regiment occupied Ausa to "forestall the French" who they claimed were considering occupying the Afar sultanate. The Emperor quietly and simply, but very angrily, stated, "Ausa is mine!" to Salimbeni. Salimbeni notified his superiors in Rome of the disintegration of his situation. Labled an "alarmist" and "inept", Salimbeni's image with the Italian Foriegn ministry took a beating. The fact was, however, that the Italians could not manipulate Menelik to do as they disired, and this was not Salimbeni's fault. As the bureaucrats in Rome saw it, Salimbeni was a failure because he couldn't manage to handle matters with what they regarded as a state of savages run by savages. While things were taking a turn for the worse as far as Ethio-Italian relations, it was decided in Rome that the only one that could salvage this disaster was Count Pietro Antonelli. Antonelli arrived at Entoto on December 17th, 1890 with letters from King Umberto that tried to appease the Emperor in very patronizing terms. Antonelli tried to blame the mistranslation of Article 17 on the Ethiopian translator, Yosef Niguse. He offered to undo the gist of the article if the Emperor promised not to accept the protection of any other power. When asked to put this in writing, Antonelli came up with "..in the event that Ethiopia might ask for a protectorate, she would give preference to Italy " which Menelik found unacceptable and angered Empress Taitu even more. Emperor Menelik proposed the wording " Italy makes it known that the Empire of Ethiopia is not its protectorate, and the Emperor will refuse to any other power such a declaration." Menelik also set down what he believed would be an acceptable border on a map. Antonelli was increasingly frantic. He canceled the cost of the freight for weapons that Menelik had purchased from Italy and agreed to pay for the import of grain for the starving people in Tigrai that Menelik had requested. He gave in on several points on the border question, recognizing that Digsa and Gura would be firmly on the Ethiopian side of the border, and Ethiopian sovreignity over the monastery of Debre Bizen and all affiliated monasteries in Eritrea with their estates and land holdings. This was all done in hopes of enticing the Emperor into accepting Article 17 and Italy 's prefered border. Empress Taitu proved to be his biggest obstacle as far as Article 17. She stuck by the demand to have it completely abolished from the treaty, even as her husband considered freezing it as it was in Italian and Amharic for five years until the treaty was due for review. Antonelli argued that the Italian text could not be changed without Italy losing dignity. The Empress coldly replied "..we too must maintain our dignity!" Antonelli then handed a letter of recall to Salimbeni (basically sacking him), as if the whole fiasco was completely Salimbeni's fault. He also anounced his own intention to leave with Count Salimbeni, signaling the offense he had taken personally and on behalf of his King and country. Menelik suddenly became concerned and open to more discussion. He said he had decided to agree to some Italian demands in order to save his freindship with Italy. Antonelli withdrew his threat of departure and withdrew the dismissal of Salimbeni. Menelik then sent over a letter in Amharic for Antonelli to sign. He assured Antonelli that the two texts of Article 17 could remain as they were for five years and that Ethiopia would certainly call on Italian assistance in foriegn affairs "out of friendship" but not out of force. During these discussions, Count Antonelli may have used the Amharic word "Yikir", meaning "let it remain", but which can also mean "leave it out", which may have been misinterpreted either intentionally or mistakenly by the Ethiopians as applying to Article 17. Count Antonelli happily signed the letter thinking he had pulled a major diplomatic coup. He boastfully commented to his staff that the only way to deal with "these people" was with firmness. When the Imperial translator, Gebriel Gobena, failed to provide a timely Italian translation, Salimbeni decided to attempt a translation of the new Amharic agreement into Italian himself. Much to his horror he found that Count Antonelli had signed a document that said that Article 17 was canceled and abrogated (left out, i.e., "yikir") instead of left as it was until the time of renewal. It looked like Menelik's payback for being tricked into signing a clause in Italian that handed over his Empire into Italian protection, and indeed, it may very well have been. Antonelli went into a towering rage. He stormed to the Palace and demanded an audience. The Imperial couple were at lunch with Ras Makonnen and Ras Mengesha Atikem of Agew Midir, and it was Ras Makonnen who came out to see what was wrong. Antonelli ranted at Ras Makonnen against "such treachery". Ras Makonnen asked him for the letter to show the Emperor. Before handing him the letter, Antonelli tore off his signature, and in the process, tore the Emperor's seal off as well. This act angered the Ethiopians as childish behaviour, and Ras Makonnen was visibly furious at seeing the Italian tear off the seal of the Emperor of Ethiopia. Entering the presence of the Monarchs and Ras Mengesha Atikem in Makonnen's wake, Antonelli demanded justice, holding up the torn letter. Menelik coldly informed him that the letter was identical to their discussions, an assertion which Antonelli denied. He then began to heap abuse on the Imperial translator, Gebriel Gobena, but he was curtly interupted by the Empress who told him that he had no right to scold the translator, as Gebriel "...is our servant, so it is our place to punish him if he is in the wrong, not yours!" The Empress then asked Antonelli to show her where in the Amharic version of Article 17 of the Treaty of Wuchale the establishment of Italian Protectorate over Ethiopia was. As he could not, Ras Makonnen (who had also been tricked into signing an agreement in Rome on the borders) tartly informed him that the Amharic note that he had been sent and that he had signed meant exactly what it said, that Article 17 was abolished and canceled. The Italian diplomats realized that the Ethiopians had just given them a taste of their own medicine. Antonelli demanded back the map that he and Menelik had made notations on about the border. Menelik stated that he would return it to the Italian government. Antonelli replied that in Ethiopia, he was the government, and that if they weren't returned to him, he would consider the maps stolen. The Italians stormed out in a huff and decided that they should suspend talks and withdraw. The Ethiopians at court were aghast at their display of bad manners. Antonelli wrote an official letter of goodbye and announced that they were all leaving. He sent messengers to various other official Italians in the Empire to assemble together as they would all be leaving with him. Ras Makonnen informed them that they were behaving like children. Antonelli returned to the Palace for his departure audience and was recieved by the Emperor. He pompously declared that Italian troops would remain at the border lines that they were on as of October 1st, that no financial concessions on Ethiopia's debt to Italy would be made, and that Italy would uphold and defend Article 17. Emperor Menelik responded quietly "Gidyelem", which translates roughly to "No worries! So be it." The Italians withdrew on February 11, 1891 . Emperor Menelik then issued a proclamation asking the people of the Empire to contribute what they could towards paying back the financial debt to Italy. The response was immense. During the years of horrendous famine, Menelik had forgiven debts and ordered the suspension of tax collection in hard hit areas. The public had started saying that Menelik was less like the stern father-figure monarch, and more like a compassionate mother, and had started refering to him as "Immiye Menelik", a nick name that translates as "Beloved Mother Menelik". It was a reputation for mercy and compassion that would spread and strengthen, and Menelik is still popularly refered to as "Immiye" to this day. People donated from what little they had to make sure that their Emperor was not degraded before foriegn princes. Much to the Italians discomfort, a year later, in 1892, the debt had been paid back in full along with all interest owed. Again the Italians tried to create trouble by negotiating secret agreements with Mengesha Yohannis, encouraging his pretentions to the throne. On December 8, 1891, Mengesha met General Gandolfi at the Mereb river and swore oaths on a bible and cross to "love each other's friends and hate each other's enemies". General Gandolfi and the other Italian colonial officials in Eritrea saw Mengesha Yohannis as the key to generating disunity in the Empire. However, the officials in the Foriegn Ministry in Rome still sought to court Menelik. In order to try to win back some of Menelik's trust, the Italian Foriegn ministry notified him of Mengesha's secret meetings with Gandolfi and the oaths. They thought that this would win them favor with Menelik while at the same time encourage disunity by angering him against Ras Mengesha. Menelik decided that two could play at divide and conquer, so he notified Ras Mengesha that the Italians had violated their Christian oaths and betrayed him. They had revealed all the details of his agreements with them, that they could never be trusted, that they were the enemies of Ethiopia, of his late father Emperor Yohannis, and of Mengesha himself. Ras Mengesha was horrified at the fact that the Italians had betrayed him to Menelik in such a manner. Instead of getting the two to fight each other, the Italians brought them closer together, and, in fact, made in Ras Mengesha, a permanent enemy. Dr. Traversi, a long time Italian medical practioner in Ethiopia returned twice in 1891 and 1892 to Ethiopia to try and revive talks. Salimbeni returned in 1892 to Harrar to discuss the loan repayments with Ras Makonnen and tried to weaken the prince's ties to Menelik, an act which predictably failed. The Italians sent sizable bribes and gifts to various nobles and chiefs in the Empire trying to buy them off and set them against Menelik. Little did they know that these nobles were informing the Emperor of all their communications with the Italians. The Emperor had instructed them to continue receiving the bribes and gifts but to inform him of everything. In June, 1894, Dr. Traversi was due to leave permanently and the Italian government sent Colonel Federico Piano to replace him. He arrived at the Great Guibi Palace in Addis Ababa to present his credentials to Emperor Menelik. The Emperor recieved him with the lower part of his face covered under his cape (a sign of great displeasure). After Piano was presented and made his elaborate bow before the Emperor, the first thing Menelik asked him was "When will you be leaving?" When Piano replied "When your Majesty wishes it." the Emperor then coldly suggested "Why not leave with Dr. Traversi tomorrow then." Relations with Italy were thus severed. Traversi would return in 1894 with the last shipment of ammunition that Ethiopia had purchased from Italy. He received a very cold reception and did not stay very long.

Ras Makonnen Wolde Michael, Governor of Harrar, de facto Foreign Minister, Cousin of Emperor Menelik II, Father of Emperor Haile Sellasie I.

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