Modern Ethiopian Monarchs Part Three
Menelik went about strengthening both his domestic and international situation. In 1891, he received Vasili Mashchov, who brought with him a letter from Czar Alexander III and two Russian Orthodox priests. The Czar had sent gifts to the Emperor and Empress, and much was made of solidarity between Orthodox monarchies. In 1892, the Russians set out on their return trip to St. Petersburg with letters and gifts from the Emperor of Ethiopia and a request for arms and support against Italian intrigues. Also in 1892, a correspondent with "Le Temps" named Casimir Mondon-Vidailhet, who was also a semi-official representative of the French government, arrived. The French were eager to thwart the Italians in east Africa and awarded Emperor Menelik the Grand Cordon of the Legion of Honor. Friendly relations were firmly established with the French. In 1892, Menelik arranged for the marriage of his daughter Shewaregga Menelik to Ras Michael Ali of Wollo. Ras Michael was once the ranking Moslem noble of Wollo, named Mohammed Ali, son of Ali Abba Dulla, and a descendent of the Prophet Mohammed. He had been converted to Christianity upon the orders of Emperor Yohannis IV, who had stood as his god-father, and whom he had served loyally; he had even been with Yohannis when that Emperor had died at Mettema. Now he had become the son-in-law of another Emperor. Michael and Shewaregga would become the parents of two children, Zenebework Michael and Lij Eyasu, who would eventually become Menelik II's heir. In February 1894, King Tekle Haimanot made his first visit to the Emperor since Menelik had assumed the Imperial throne. He was fetted and honored continuously while in the capital and received a new crown from the Emperor. On June 9, 1894, Ras Mengesha Yohannis arrived with Ras Alula and other Tigrean nobles to formally submit to Menelik II at Addis Ababa. To tie the Tigreans to them securely, Empress Taitu arranged for her neice, Woizero Kefey Welle, to marry Ras Mengesha Yohannis; Menelik II had consolidated his rule and was now strengthening his house. Not long afterwards, news arrived of the shooting of the French President Carnot by an Italian anarchist. Menelik pointed to the treachery of Italians and ordered that a wreath in his name be placed on the President's grave. Always a monarchist, however, Menelik also made a point to send a letter of condolence to the newly widowed Countess of Paris on the death of the claimant to the French throne, the Count of Paris.
Ras Mengesha Yohannis of Tigrai
Relations with Italy soured further. In May of 1895, Engineer Luigi Capucci, a long-time Italian resident of Ethiopia, was arrested for spying after one of his couriers informed on him. A jury of male Europeans was assembled (Europeans had the right to be judged by fellow Europeans under many of the treaties they signed in Ethiopia). The five Frenchmen, two Armenians, and one Greek found him guilty and recomended to the Emperor that he be placed under house arrest (but not harmed), as this mercy would bring the Emperor great credit in Europe. However, one of the Frenchmen, Mondon-Vidailhet himself no less, told the Emperor that normal practice in France was to shoot spies. The others criticized him for condoning the death of a fellow white man at the hand of blacks. However, the Emperor decided that Capucci would not be shot. Tensions rose when another Italian, Pietro Felter, was expelled from Harrar. However, the Italians had been able to march deep into Tigrai and had Ras Mengesha on the defensive. Little by little they pushed the prince out of his province. The year 1895 was a year of feverish preparations for war. Menelik reinforced the army of Ras Mengesha and established an arms depot at Werre Illu in Wollo. War was now unavoidable.
In December of 1893, Francesco Crespi returned to the post of Prime Minister of Italy, taking the position of Foriegn minister as well. As his undersecretary for Foreign Affairs, he appointed none other than Count Pietro Antonelli. Also appointed as the new military governor of Eritrea was General Oreste Baratieri. In 1895, with the deep advances into Tigrai under his belt, General Baratieri arrived for a triumphal visit to Rome. When he visited the chambers of the Italian Parliament on July 26,1895, the parliamentary body gave him a thundering standing ovation and he addressed them as a conquering hero. King Umberto recieved him in audience and praised his "triumph of civilization over barbarism" -- Baratieri went so far as to state in one speech that he would bring the Emperor of Ethiopia to Rome in a cage. He said that there would be war by October, but with his 10,000 "civilized" troops, he would easily crush the 20-30,000 "savage" army of the Emperor of Ethiopia. He was granted funds to raise an additional 1000 troops from among the "natives" of Eritrea. He was the toast of Rome and was a much-sought guest of every salon's host and hostess. The Italians were confident that they were about to get a significant prize in the great European scramble for Africa.
On September 17, 1895, the great negarit war drum on the grounds of the Palace was beaten continuously at dawn. It was the signal for a declaration of war, and the population streamed to the palace gates. Imperial flags and war pennants streamed over the walls of the palace. Priests, soldiers, merchants, commoners, and nobles all assembled before the main gates of the palace. On the battlements above the gates appeared the Afenigus, the official who acted as the Emperor's spokesperson. He read the following proclamation in the name of Menelik II:
"Assemble the army, beat the drum (Kitet Serawit, Mita Negarit!). God in His bounty has struck down my enemies and enlarged my Empire, preserving me to this day. I have reigned by the grace of God. As we must all die someday, I will not be afflicted if I die, but enemies have come who would ruin our country and change our religion. They have passed beyond the sea that God gave us for our border. I, aware that herds were decimated and people were exhausted, did not wish to do anything until now. These enemies have advanced, burrowing into the country like moles. With the help of God, I will get rid of them. Men of my country, up until now, I believe I have never wronged you, and you have never caused me sorrow. Now, you who are strong, lend me your strong arms (your might), and you who are weak, help me with your prayers, while you think of your children, your wife, and your faith. If you refuse to follow me, beware. You will hate me for I shall not fail to punish you. I swear in the name of Mary that I will never accept any plea of pardon. Men of Shewa, asemble and meet me at Were Illu, and may you be there by the middle of Tiqimt (October). So says Menelik, Elect of God, King of Kings!"
With this, in every little hamlet and village, in every house great or small, the men of the Empire prepared to answer the call of the Emperor. As the date of the mobilization at Were Illu approached, more and more men began to leave their homes with whatever weapons they had, reporting to their regional chiefs and lords. The Italian Dr. Narazzini, who lived at the port of Zeila, reported that some terrible catastrophe of a national scale must have occured as the women packing the churches were weeping. He naively transmitted the intelligence that the Emperor had been struck by lightning and was either dead or paralyzed, a rumor that may have been deliberately planted in his ear. The truth was that the women were praying for the safe return of their husbands and sons. The Emperor, the Empress, and a large number of both male and female members of the court departed Addis Ababa and marched north. Ras Darge was proclaimed Regent in the absence of his nephew (the Emperor) and remained in Addis Ababa .
In Italy, General Baratieri was informed that Ras Mengesha Yohannis, with reinforced troops from the Emperor, had taken up position at Debre Hayla, which was very close to the Italian garrison at Adigrat. The General made haste and returned to Eritrea. He proceeded to occupy Adigrat and engaged Ras Mengesha in battle on October 9. The Ras was defeated and began a retreat; the Italians surged forward, occupying the mountain fortress of Amba Alage. At Amba Alage, they found Ras Sebhat Aregawi, head of the aristocratic House of Sabagadis and ruler of the Agame district --long-time rivals of the Tembien family of Emperor Yohannis for precedence in Tigrai. He had been imprisoned on the Amba by Ras Mengesha and now offered to join the Italians in fighting him. Major Paulo Toselli was put in command of this fort along with Ras Sebhat and his relative, Dejazmatch Hagos Taffari. Another prominent Ethiopian on the Italian side at Amba Alage was Sheik Tohla Bin Giafer of Wollo, who had fled Ethiopia to the Sudan years before rather than submit to Emperor Yohannis IV's edict that all the Muslims of Wollo should convert to Christianity. He was here now to incite the Muslims of the empire to rise against the Emperor Menelik II and support the Italians (who promised freedom for the Moslems). The Sultan of Ausa was also courted, and he assured the Italians that when the oportunity arose, he would rise in rebellion and attack Menelik from the rear as Menelik engaged the Italians. The Italians occupied Mekele as well, evacuating the priests at the Inde Yesus church and turning it into a fortress. Ras Mengesha and his defeated forces retreated out of Tigrai and into Wollo; they took refuge with Ras Michael.
The Emperor, the Empress, and their court, along with their respective armies, arrived at Werre Illu 18 days after they left Addis Ababa. They left the capital with 50,000 troops, but, by the time they reached Werre Illu, the army had swollen to 150,000 men. Ras Makonnen advanced ahead of the Emperor and was approaching Amba Alage in Tigrai itself. With the Ras and his Harrar troops were the Armies of Ras Mengesha Yohannis and Ras Welle Bitul. The three Rases agreed that an attack on the small fort on Amba Alage would not be worth the cost in men, as it was situated on a steep mountain top that favored the Italian defenders of the fort. They decided to march past the fortress and proceed to Mekelle or Adigrat itself where the main body of the Italian forces was located. Others had different ideas, however. Fitawrari Gebeyehu led a force of 1200 men and attacked a small unit of Italians who were on a scouting mission. The Italians retreated into the fortress and gunfire was exchanged. Ras Makonnen repeatedly sent messages asking for negotiations with the Italians and therfore had little intention of fighting there. Ras Mengesha and Ras Welle both advised bypassing Amba Alage for the more important town of Mekele. Besides, their forces were only the advance force --the main force was still 300 kilometers away. On December 7, 1895, with the sound of gun fire, soldiers leapt up, grabbed their weapons, and charged into battle as Fitawrari Gebeyehu caused fighting to start where the princes definately did not want to battle; the Italians had the advantage of a strategic mountaintop fortress where even a rock could be thrown and cause damage. In spite of repeated orders to hold back, neither the Tigreans of Ras Mengesha nor the Amharas of Rases Welle or Mekonnen could be stopped. The situation was rapidly moving out of the hands of the Rases, and the situation deteriorated to the point where they had to throw everything into the assault. Major Toselli sent messages to General Arimondi at Mekelle (only 25 kilometers away) asking for reinforcements as waves of Ethiopian warriors tried to clamber up the steep slopes of Amba Alage. Arimondi requested orders form General Baratieri at Adigrat and was told not to send any r-inforcements to Amba Alage. Instead, he was told to instruct Toselli to hold the Ethiopians back for a while and then to withdraw in stages towards Mekelle -- a delaying tactic. For some inexplicable reason, General Arimondi did not send these directions to Major Toselli; Toselli fought on at full force, expecting re-inforcements to arrive at any time. The casualties were very steep on the Ethiopian side because of the advantage of position enjoyed by the Italians. However, after a battle that lasted six hours, only 400 of the 2000 members of the Italian army were able to flee to Mekelle. Ras Sebhat, the Shum of Agame, already battling serious doubts in facing his countrymen on the side of foreigners, fled with his soldiers and was badly shaken. Sheik Tohla Ben Giafer also fled, and with him went any hope the Italians had of inciting the Muslims into rebellion. Major Toselli died in the battle, and the Ethiopian flag flew over Amba Alage. Chris Prouty writes that Queen Margarita of Italy wrote a friend, "This death of Toselli is so sublime...that tears, not of grief but of admiration spring to the eyes..." The Italians had their "Gordon", a brave stalwart white hero who had fallen in the service of his country in the heart of "Darkest Africa". The anti-colonial and republican elements in Italy demanded a withdrawal from Africa , but they were drowned out by calls for vengance. On the Ethiopian side, the great man of the day was Fitawrari Gebeyehu. Emperor Menelik's chronicler writes that "Amharas and Tigreans shouted his name, calling him 'Gobez-ayehu'." (This plays on his name -- changing it to mean "I have seen a brave man"). However, Ras Makonnen and Ras Mengesha were very angry at the Fitawrari's autonomous action as it cost them many men. When he heard of the victory at Amba Alage, the Emperor was pleased, but he was also aware that he had to punish Gebeyehu for beginning the war without orders. He ordered Gebeyehu to be chained for three weeks as punishment. However, despite meting judgment, the Emperor didn't fail to chuckle and brag about his "brave Gebeyehu". The Emperor ordered that Major Toselli be given an honorable burial. This immediately caused angry protests on the part of the brothers of the Eritrean nobleman Bahta Hagos, who had led an anti-Italian uprising in 1894 and been defeated and killed by the Italians. On Major Toselli's personal orders, Bahta Hagos' body was refused burial despite the pleas of his family and was left out in the open so that it could be eaten by hyenas. They demanded the right to exact vengance by leaving Toselli's corpse in the open as well for the vultures and hyenas to feed on. Menelik is said to have told the family of Bahta Hagos not to sink to the "Un-Christian barbarity of the Italians", and he again ordered the funeral to be carried out. This comment must have galled the Italian officers in Mekelle and Adigrat to no end.
With the victory of Amba Alage, Menelik and the main element of the Ethiopian forces advanced into the heart of Tigrai. He passed through the Alamata Pass on December 14 and held a huge military review at Lake Ashenge. As he left Lake Ashenge, caution required the Emperor to steer clear of the camp of Ras Michael of Wollo because of an epidemic among the horses in that camp. To the shock of the Italians, on December 24, King Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam arrived with his 5,000 troops and joined the army of the Emperor. The Italians had sent numerous gifts and much money to the King, who had always been very friendly to them. Their spies had assured them that the Gojjame king had many grudges against the Emperor and would never join him against the Italians. Italian sources further speculated that he might even take the opportunity to rebel. What the Italians failed to realize was that many of their native-born spies were actually feeding them false information andactually working for the Emperor. They also didn't know that, when faced with an outsider enemy, even bandits and rebels would traditionally rally behind their monarch and their flag, let alone a good friend of Menelik and patriotic Ethiopian like Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam. The Italians were further frustrated to learn that a large army commanded by Ras Wolde Giorgis, Ras Tessema Nadew, and Azajh Wolde Tsadiq had surrounded Ausa, preventing the Sultan from taking any action to help them as he had assured them he would. Still, the Italians were firm in their belief that their "superior civilization" would guarantee them victory over this rabble. The thinking of the day was that there was no way a nation of blacks could outwit or outmaneuver Europeans.
Umberto di Savoia, King of Italy
In Tigrai, the Emperor and Empress of Ethiopia, the King of Gojjam, the Rases and Dejazmatches, Fitawraris, Grazmatches and Kegnazmatches, Amhara, Tigrean Oromo and Gurage prepared to do battle through a combination of military and spiritual tactics. During their stay in Tigrai, the Emperor and Empress visited the Monastery of the Holy Trinity at Cheleqot, where the great Ras Welde Selassie. and Empress Tiruwork Wube (widow of Tewodros II and cousin of Empress Taitu) were buried. Emperor Menelik is said to have been deeply affected by this holy site and is said to have pledged that if victory was his, he would give the monastery his gold encrusted robes of state. At the nearby Church of St. Mary, Empress Taitu is said to have kept vigil in deep prayer for an extended time, praying for the intercession of the Mother of God for Ethiopia. She is said to have commented as she left, "My Lady always answers me without delay." Because of this comment, this site is still refered to as "Airefedat Mariam".
Ras Makonnen, Ras Mengesha, and Ras Welle made their camp not far from Mekelle and again sent messages to the Italians asking for negotiations and Italian withdrawal from Mekelle. Makonnen would write to Major Galliano of the Italian force in Mekelle's Fort Inde Yesus on January 5, 1896, "I have not come to make war on such a smal fort; we are numerous and have no fear of your guns. Remember Amba Alage and the end of Toselli. Surrender the fort." He urged Galliano to go with his troops to Massawa and that Makonnen would send people later with the baggage that the Italians and their "Askari" (native) troops couldn't carry with them. Baratieri was urging his negotiator, Pietro Felter, to stall negotiations for 20 days so that reinforcements from Italy could arrive. In the meantime, on January 6, Emperor Menelik and his vast army arrived and joined the advance force outside Mekelle. On the following day, January 7, 1896, the day Ethiopians celebrate the birth of Christ, the Italians fired on an Ethiopian scout from their fortress (which had once been the Church of Enda Yesus -- church of Jesus). Although the Emperor was leaning towards abandoning Mekelle and marching on the main Italian force at Adigrat, he now gave the order to attack. The Ethiopian forces launced a fierce attack on Enda Yesus on January 8th. The attacks seemed to have little effect on the well-fortified Italian position. Ras Makonnen was wounded along with many others in battle and around 500 Ethiopians lay dead around the mountain top fortress. There were only six dead and nine wounded inside the fort. The Italians were confident of success. Frustrated by the failure of the assaults on the fortress, the Ethiopian commanders deliberated on what tactics would get the best results. It was Empress Taitu that came up with the solution. The Empress had her own soldiers capture the water supply of the fort and fortify it, preventing the Italians from drawing water. The water supply was situated in such a way that the Italians could not fire on the Ethiopians who now guarded it. The Italians were now under seige with their only hope being reinforcements from Adigrat. The Italians instituted rationing of water in their fort. Christian askaris were given one third of a liter of water per day and a tot of rum, beer, or wine. Muslim askaris (who did not consume alcohol) were given a half liter of water a day. All the Italian soldiers and officers recieved half a liter of water and their normal wine ration. All women in the fort not legally married to an askari were expelled from the fort along with all children, and safe passage was arranged for them (many women would climb ropes back into the fort to their lovers that night and remained there, much to their later regret). Galliano also sent messangers to Adigrat requesting immediate relief of the Fort of Enda Yesus at Mekelle by an appropriate force. On January 10, Ras Makonnen launched yet another attack that lasted all night, again failing to dislodge the Italians. The Ras himself was wounded and could have been killed, but it is said that he was saved by the quick thinking of his illigitimate son Yilma. Some date the official acknowledgement of Yilma Makonnen as the son of the Ras to this event. Ras Makonnen asked for a cease-fire on January 13 so that he could remove his dead from around the fortress for burial. Galliano arrogantly refused, saying that he would do so only if the Ethiopian forces retreated 11 kilometers. Makonnen realized that Galliano hoped he would fall for this silly ruse so that he could replenish the water supply. Galliano would soon regret this as the bodies around the fortress began to rot in the sun, filling it with a foul smell. While Galliano continued to wait for relief from Adigrat, Baratieri was of a different mind. General Baratieri had no intention of leaving fortified Adigrat and facing the huge army of the Emperor. Even though Galliano was able to send message after message begging for a force to relieve the seige, little did he know that Menelik and Baratieri, now at Edaghamus, were negotiating via Pietro Felter for the surrender of Mekelle. Finally, agreement was reached. The Italians could retreat with all their belongings, including all weapons and ammunition, to Adigrat. In exchange, Baratieri promised to re-open negotiations on all facets of the problems between Italy and Ethiopia, including the border and Article 17. A female messanger arrived at the fort to inform Galliano that no preparations were underway in Addigrat to relieve him and his forces. On January 19, the last of the water was distributed to the occupants of the fort. The Italians, with their Eritrean and Sudanese askaris, faced death by dehydration or death by the sword. Late in the day, a messanger arrived under safe passage from Adigrat. Galliano was ordered by General Baratieri "In the name of His Majesty King Umberto, cede the fort at Mekelle to the Nigus of Abyssinia." The following day, the Empress finally allowed the Italians to draw water as the fort was surrendered. Major Galliano was recieved by the Emperor, who presented him with a mule as a mark of honor, and sent the Italians with their belongings and their askaris to Addigrat. The Italians had agreed to re-open negotiations on all aspects of the conflict, so Menelik was allowing them to withdraw with their guns and property, much to the anger of his wife and Ras Mengesha. The Italians had no intention to negotiate. Menelik waited for ten days for a representative to come from the Italian side. Finally, Pietro Felter arrived to tell Menelik that Major Salsa would be arriving to negotiate. Menelik was very angry, suspecting that the Italians were delaying in order to give time for their reinforcements to arrive from Italy . He held 10 Italian officers from the Mekelle fort as hostage until the negotiator arrived. When Baratieri learned that 10 officers were being held back as hostages, he prevented Salsa from completing his trip to the Emperor. The Italian hostages were summoned before Ras Makonnen. They had heard rumors that they were to be executed because of the fury of Empress Taitu at this latest broken Italian promise. Instead, Makonnen told them that although their death had been decided due to the failure of the Italian government to send Major Salsa, Menelik II did not believe in punishing people for the fault of others, so they were free to leave, as long as they left at once. They were to tell General Baratieri that if he didn't want to send Salsa, he could send Felter. If no one came, then Christian blood would have to be shed. On February 11, Major Salsa arrived with the preposterous demand to "Renew the Treaty of Wuchale and give back to Italy all the land that has been seized from her." Not surprisingly, Major Salsa was ordered to leave. Baratieri arrogantly sent a message to Emperor Menelik ending all negotiations and announcing that each army could resume its freedom of action. Two days later, the Italians were stunned with fresh news. Ras Sebhat Aregawi, and his relative Dejazmatch Hagos Taffari, together with 500 of their well-armed followers defected from their side and went to Mekelle, kissed the Emperor's feet and re-joined the forces of their Motherland. They took with them vital intelligence on the Italian forces and their fortifications. The forces of Ras Sebhat promptly attacked a unit of Italians moving between Enticho and Addigrat, cut the telegraph lines that the Italians had set up, and raided the food caravans. Shortly thereafter, they were followed by Ras Wolde Michael Solomon, traditional ruler of Hamasien and head of the powerful Tsehazega clan in Eritrea. Ras Wolde Michael had been a bitter foe of Emperor Yohannis IV, who had replaced him in Hamasein by Ras Alula, causing him to take up arms against him; he first took refuge with the Egyptians and then with the Italians. Now, the Ras decided that his loyalties lay with his motherland and had come to fight at Menelik's side. On February 23, the Ethiopian army settled around Adowa. The Emperor knew that the Italians were well-fortified in Adigrat and the other forts they had established. He knew that it would be extremely difficult to dislodge them. Now he hoped that they would come out of their forts and attack him in the open, leaving him a better chance of victory.
At the same time, the Italians were engaged in a complex conspiracy to undermine Menelik's rule from within his family. Several years earlier, by recommendation of Menelik's trusted Swiss advisor, Alfred Ilg, Ras Darge's son, Lij Gugsa , along with Afework Gebre Yesus (the same student who had pointed out the claims of Italian protectorate to Ras Makonnen during the Wuchale Treaty talks in Rome), and another young noble named Ketema, had been sent to Neuchatel in Switzerland to pursue higher education. Lij Gugsa Darge seemed to the Italians to be the perfect tool in attracting Shewan nobles away from Menelik. They seem to have used Afework Gebre Yesus to get close to the young prince and lure him to the Swiss Italian border where he was promptly siezed and taken to Rome. They then told the three young Ethiopians that they intended on putting Gugsa on the Ethiopian throne if he endorsed the Italian action in Ethiopia. In particular, Afework seemed very eager to help the Italians in this endeavor, and the three were swiftly shipped off to Massawa and joined Baratieri at Edaghamus. Lij Gugsa was accorded all the honors and respect of a Prince, and he was placed in a special tent next to that of Baratieri. However, the hopes that the Italians had that members of the Emperor's entourage would begin to defect to the cause of putting Gugsa on the throne did not materialize. In fact, a letter sent to Ras Darge by Dr. Narrazini announcing Italian intentions to enthone his son in the place of his nephew only instigated a stinging reply from the elderly Prince. Ras Darge wrote to the Doctor saying, "I truly didn't know you before this. Now I truly know you by your letter. How very damaged am I for not having known who you really are before this." He then sarcastically stated that as he had been left in Addis Ababa as the Regent in the Emperor's absence, that there was no problem in marching in and putting Gugsa his son on the throne. He went on to call Narrazini a "poisonous snake" and said that he had changed his good name of Doctor to one of "liar a swindler Doctor". Gugsa himself was soon increasingly reluctant and fearful of his position in the Italian camp. Finally, having been of no use to the Italians, they angrily sent him back to Neuchatel. For Lij Gugsa, his trials were far from over. His father disowned him and his name was struck out of the Imperial family tree permanently. Afework Gebre Yesus would survive to play a role in the next three reigns on behalf of Italy .
The Ethiopians began to engage in a complex misinformation campaign aimed at getting the Italians to come out of their fortifications and attack. As groups of soldiers scouted the terrain and went out in search of supplies, Baratieri was led to believe by his spies (who were secretly in the service of Emperor Menelik) that these were actually large groups of deserting soldiers who were fleeing in fear from the long campaign and the might of Italian firepower. Stories were told to the General that the King of Gojjam had quarelled with the Emperor and was on the verge of returning to Gojjam with his army and that Ras Makonnen was plotting rebellion, both of which were false stories planted deliberately in his ear. On February 28, General Baratieri summoned Generals Albertone, Arimondi, Dabormida, and Ellena and asked them for their opinions. He told them that their provisions would run out in 4 days and that they only had the options of retreating back to Asmara or attacking the Ethiopians. The Generals unanimously voiced their opposition to retreating to Asmara and supported action to strike a crushing blow on the Ethiopians, which they believed to be necessary after the humiliating setbacks at Amba Alage and Mekelle. They also believed that many of Menelik's army had traveled to Axum to pay homage to the Cathedral shrine of St. Mary of Zion and would be absent from his camp. Little did they know that two major events had occured to effect their cause. First, the army led by Azaj Wolde Tsadik had crushed the Sultan of Ausa, ending any hope of a Moslem attack on the Imperial Army from the rear. Also, angered by the defeats at Amba Alage and Mekelle, Prime Minister Crespi had already secretly replaced Baratieri by General Baldissera, who was traveling in secret towards Massawa as they discussed their options. He would arrive too late to save them.
On the night of February 29th, 1896, General Baratieri commanded his 17,700 troops to march out of their fortifications and take up positions to prepare an assault on Adowa. They followed faulty maps and were led by Eritrean guides who were secretly working for the Emperor of Ethiopia over difficult terrain and a cold fog late at night. At four o'clock in the morning of March 1st, 1896, Emperor Menelik, Empress Taitu, King Tekle Haimanot, and their nobles and Generals had assembled to hear the prepatory prayers that precede Mass at the Church of St. Michael in Adowa. As the prayers continued, messengers arrived to whisper to their leaders that the attack had begun. The Archbishop Abune Mattiwos stepped out of the Holy of Holies in the middle of the mass and and announced that the time had come to lay down lives for God, Emperor, and Country. The Imperial flag was dipped before the altar as the Archbishop held up his cross and blessed the people, granting them absolution for their sins. The entire congregation took communion and then rushed out to join the army. Emperor Menelik took up his position on Amba Abba Gerima with his Imperial Guards. King Tekle Haimanot took the 12,000 man army of Gojjam and formed the right wing of the Ethiopian forces. Ras Mengesha Yohannis and Ras Alula, commanding the 13,000 man army of Tigrai, took up positions at Kidane Mihret as the left wing. Ras Makonnen and his Harrar troops, Ras Michael and his Wello Oromo troops, and Ras Welle with his Yejju and Simien troops, made up the center. Empress Taitu also took up a position close to Amba Abba Gerima where her 5000-man army and her cannons prepared for the Italian onslaught. With her were the women of the Imperial court, including Princess Zewditu, who organized the women of the army to carry water and bullets to the fighting soldiers as well as tend to the wounded. The 17,700 troops of the Italian army were faced with over 100,000 Ethiopian troops. The Italians were under the general command of General Baratieri himself, with Generals Vittorio Dabormida, Giuseppe Arimondi, and Matteo Albertone commanding the various columns. At 6:10 A.M., a unit of soldiers from the column of troops commanded by General Albertone made a wrong turn and marched directly into the path of the Ethiopians rushing to their appointed positions. Gunfire broke out and the great battle of Adowa was underway. On all fronts, the Italians were overwhelmed by the ferocity of the Ethiopian army, which continually charged them in vast numbers. By 12:30 P.M., General Baratieri was desperately preparing his retreat. The Ethiopians continued to destroy the Italians, pursuing them and their colonial Eritrean troops until dark fell and Emperor Menelik returned to Adowa from Amba Abba Gerima. Once the Emperor had returned to Adowa, the command was given to halt the fighting. No more of the enemy were to be killed from that point -- surviving Italians were now only taken prisoner. Baratieri barely escaped with his life, General Arimondi and Dabormida met their deaths, while General Albertone was captured. Fires were set to smoke out soldiers hiding in the tall grasses. Soldiers began to sing victory songs and praises of Menelik and the great leaders of the battle, and women began to ulultate. Immediately, the Emperor called a halt to the celebration stating, "It is Christians who have slaughtered each other today -- there is no reason to celebrate." Both he and his Empress had their red umbrellas folded with black umbrellas replacing them, and a torrential rain began to fall. The Empress wept as she was told the names of some of the many who had died on the Ethiopian side, and the court and the army were plunged into mourning even as they savored a great victory. Between four and eight thousand Ethiopians lay dead while six thousand Italian troops (both European and Eritrean) also died. In addition, Italians were captured by the hundreds, as were their Eritrean "askari" colonial troops.
Many people have been critical of Emperor Menelik II's decision not to pursue the completely disintegrated Italian forces northward towards Asmara and Massawa, thereby re-incorporating Mereb Melash (Eritrea) into the Empire. Indeed many Eritreans today feel that Ethiopia relinquished any claim to Eritrea due to this act of abandonment. However, Emperor Menelik, in spite of having dealt the Italians a crushing blow, was not in any situation to pursue a reconquest of Eritrea. The countryside in Tigrai had been depleted of supplies by his huge armies, and staying there longer would have not only caused disgruntlement on the part of the peasantry but actual starvation. Advancing northward would have extended his supply lines to a point that he could not maintain at all since he would have been forced to rely on supplies coming from Wello, Shewa, Beghemider and Simien. He would also shortly learn of the arrival of General Baldisera to replace Baratieri and that fresh Italian forces were on their way from Italy. He believed it was in his interest to negotiate terms which would gain recognition of Ethiopia by the European powers as a sovereign and independent state, using recent military victory and his prisoners of war as leverage, rather than risk the ire of Europe by further humiliating a fellow European colonial power.
The large number of European prisoners were all rounded up along with vast numbers of weapons, including the latest artillery and masses of ammunition. In preparation for a march southward to Addis Ababa, the question arose as to what to do about the native Eritrean Askari troops that had fought on the Italian side and were now prisoners. The Emperor and his nobles agreed that while the Italians deserved honorable treatment because they had fought loyally for their King and Country, the Eritreans were regarded as traitors to their rightful monarch Menelik II and to their kind and kin in Ethiopia. Menelik was of the opinion that they should each receive 80 lashes of the whip and then sent back to their homes. Ras Mengesha Yohannis, ironically himself a recent rebel against the Emperor, however, would have none of that. He angrily and bitterly complained that these were former subjects of his father Emperor Yohannis, and that their disloyalty dated from the time of the rebellion of the Hamasien nobility against his father (supporting the Egyptians and later the Italians). As Tigrigna speakers and northerners, he fiercly argued they fell under his sphere and it was his right to punish them. Emperor Menelik was in no mood apparently to pick an argument with Ras Mengesha over this issue, especially so soon after a major battle which had cost him many men and exhausted his remaining troops. Ras Mengesha was triumphant when the Emperor conceded to him the right to decide and execute whatever punishment he saw fit upon all the Eritrean Askari troops held prisoner at Adowa. Ras Mengesha Yohannis then ordered and carried out a punishment that would be remembered in Eritrea for generations to come. Some have said it was his vengeance on the Eritreans for costing him the Imperial Throne by resisting and fighting against his rule, prefering colonization by the Italians. He ordered that the right hand and left foot of every male Eritrean prisoner be cut off. It did nothing to engender warmth between the people of Eritrea and Tigrai or the rest of Ethiopia. Many of these men died, the rest were crippled for life and returned to live pitifully in the Italian colony. Although some Ethiopian nobles may have been unhappy at this brutal punishment, many also thought it was appropriate. What Menelik II thought about it is unknown. The Italian authorities made some attempt at providing artificial limbs, but, for the most part, these men did not recieve much help from the colonial government.
Dejazmatch Demissew Nessibu, a hero of Adowa
Menelik re-entered Addis Ababa in triumph. He had arranged for the artillery that had been captured from the Italians to arrive in Addis Ababa before him, and so when he and the Empress rode into their capital, the Italian guns fired off a one-hundred gun salute. Menelik returned to his capital amid cheering and applause, bringing with him his large troop of captured Italian soldiers. Prominent subjects were given a number of prisoners each to take away and keep on their properties, feeding them and clothing them by Imperial command until their fate was agreed to in the peace negotiations that had begun with Major Salsa (representing Italy). The number of prisoners assigned to a personage varied according to the wealth of the person consigned them. Prisoners of higher rank were even given servants. In Italy, riots broke out and 100,000 people signed a petition demanding the complete withdrawal of Italy from all its African colonies. Shouts of "Viva Menelik" became the slogan of anti-colonial demonstrators in Rome and elsewhere. The pro-colonial Prime minister Francesco Crispi and his government fell and was replaced by Antonio Staraba, Marchese di Rudini, who announced that Italy would no longer seek to expand her existing colonies and prepared to enter into negotiations with the Ethiopian government on the return of the prisoners and a Peace Treaty. General Baratieri, so recently lionized as a hero, was now put on trial for his alleged inept command. Following the unification of Italy and the establishment of Rome as its capital, the Pope lost all political power in what had been his city and the former Papal states that he had ruled directly from there. As a result, relations between the Vatican and the Italian Government were poor and would remain so until a concordat was signed much later in the 1920's with Mussolini. The Vatican apparently thought this was the perfect opportunity to undermine the Italian government in the eyes of the people by negotiating the freedom of the captives on its own. Pope Leo XIII, therefore, wrote a letter to Emperor Menelik in May 1896 urging mercy and clemency. To deliver the message, the Pope chose Bishop Macarios, a young Coptic Catholic from the small Coptic community in Egypt that had allegience to Rome rather than Alexandria. The young bishop arrived in Addis Ababa and apparently got on very well with the Emperor, but the Emperor was shrewd enough to realize that dealing with the Vatican rather than the Quirinale would not be in the best interests of ending the conflict with Italy . He sent the Pope a respectful letter giving his word that the prisoners would not be molested in any way but asking for His Holinesses understanding since "...my duty as king and father of my people prevents me from sacrificing the sole guarantee of peace that I have with me". As a token of his respect for the Papal throne, however, he released one prisoner who was very ill and allowed him to return to Italy with Bishop Macarios. Not long after this episode, another episode occured that showed Menelik's compassionate nature. The Emperor was told that one of the Italian soldiers being kept by the Imperial houshold had recieved a letter from his widowed mother in Naples. Apparently, upon reading her letter, the soldier had become extremely inconsolable and was weeping loundly and bitterly. Menelik ordered the soldier brought before him and had a translator read the letter. The distraught mother had written her son saying that she now spent her days weeping in the local St. Mary's church, begging the Mother of God to bring her son home to her, a weak and lonely widow whose life had no meaning without her only child. When the Emperor heard what was written, his eyes filled with tears and he said, "The tears of your mother, and our shared love for the Mother of God have freed you. Go back to your mother, and tell her that the Holy Virgin has returned you to her." Finally a treaty was signed on October 26, 1896. The Treaty of Addis Ababa completely abrogated the Treaty of Wuchale, and Italy recognized the absolute and complete independence of the Ethiopian Empire. The question of the borders, however, was deferred for further negotiations. Until then, the status quo before hostilities broke out was maintained as far as the border was concerned. In 1900, the Mereb-Belesa line was recognized as the boundry between Ethiopia and Italian Eritrea. The Italians were able to get their initial preferred border after all, but they had failed in conquering Ethiopia .
Empress Taitu and Emperor Menelik II in old age
Statue of Emperor Menelik II, erected on Nov. 1, 1930 by Emperor Haile Selassie, in front of the Cathedral of St. George in Addis Ababa.