Modern Ethiopian Monarchs Part Six
The Tombs of Emperor Menelik II (left) and his daughter Empress Zewditu (right) in the Crypt of the Ta'eka Negest Ba'eta Le Mariam Monastery Church (Church of the Presentation of the Virgin, Resting Place of Kings), built By Zewditu in her father's memory
Their Imperial Majesties, Empress Menen and Emperor Haile Selassie I
BIRTH & ANCESTRY
Emperor Haile Selassie I was born on July 23, 1894 as Lij Taffari Makonnen at Enjersa Goro, which is just outside the city of Harrar. His parents were Ras Makonnen Wolde Michael, the governor of Harrar, and his wife, Woizero Yeshimebet Ali AbaJiffar. Ras Makonnen was the son of Dejazmatch Wolde Michael Wolde Melekot, a noble of Doba in northern Shewa. Ras Makonnen's paternal grandfather was Ato Wolde Melekot Yemane Kristos, a Tigrean noble from Tembien who had moved to Shewa. Ras Makonnen's mother, however, was Woizero Tenagnework Sahle Selassie, daughter of King Sahle Selassie of Shewa, sister of King Haile Melekot of Shewa, and aunt to Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia . Ras Makonnen was thus the first cousin of Emperor Menelik II and a member of the Solomonic Dynasty. Woizero Yeshimebet, his wife, was the daughter of Dejazmatch Ali AbaJiffar, an Oromo chieftan of Wollo, and his wife, Woizero Welete Giorgis Yimeru, a Gurage woman once married to Ras Darge Sahle Selassie (Menelik II's uncle). Woizero Yeshimebet died before her son was two years old. Ras Makonnen had an elder son, Yilma, whom he did not aknowledge until later in life (some say after Yilma saved his father's life during the battle of Adowa). Dejazmatch Yilma Makonnen was Emperor Haile Selassie's only sibling and was the father of four children, Kegnazmatch Sehalu Yilma, Kegnasmatch Asfaw Yilma, Dej. Mengesha Yilma, and Her Highness Princess Yeshashework Yilma. Ras Makonnen had several siblings, however. His elder sister Ihite Mariam had a daughter Mazlekia, who was married to Fitawrari Haile Selassie and was the mother of Ras Imiru Haile Selassie, who was to be the Emperor Haile Selassie's life-long companion and close confidant. As Ras Makonnen spent a great deal of time traveling on diplomatic business for Emperor Menelik, he entrusted the care of his son Taffari to Fitawrari Haile Selassie. Therefore, Taffari grew up with Imiru more as brother rather than a cousin. Lij Taffari also was cared for by his maternal grandmother Woizero (later Emahoi after taking vows and becoming a nun) Welete Giorgis, and his maternal aunt Woizero Mammit. The boys were given the traditional education given to the children of Ethiopia 's aristocracy. They were taught by Orthodox priests and could recite the psalms in Ge-ez by age six. They were ordained deacons and served as such at Harrar's St. Michael's Church. Later, Ras Makonnen approached a French Catholic Capuchin monk residing in Harrar, Father Jarresseau, to teach the boys. The Catholic priest taught them French, geography, world history, philosophy and some Latin as well. Over the next years, Taffari also picked up English, German, and the Ethiopian languages of Amharic, Tigrigna, and Oromigna (called Galligna in those days). He became quite the scholar in Ge-ez.
His Imperial Highness, Ras Makonnen Wolde Michael, Father of Emperor Haile Selassie I
PATH TO THE THRONE
At the age of thirteen, Lij Taffari Makonnen was created a Dejazmatch by his father and given the district of Garra Muleta to rule. Ras Makonnen also summoned all his officers and informed them that it was his wish that his son Dejazmatch Taffari succeed him as governor of Harrar and asked them all to swear their loyalty to Taffari. However, when Ras Makonnen died suddenly in 1908, the situation in Ethiopia was not what most had anticipated. The Ras died (possibly of typhus) at Kulibi on his way to Addis Ababa from Harrar. He was taken back to Harrar and buried at St. Michael's Church. Emperor Menelik was beside himself with grief upon hearing that Ras Makonnen was dead. He had a huge funeral tent set up on the grounds of the Imperial Palace and proclaimed that he would be the chief mourner for Ras Makonnen. He summoned Dejazmatch Taffari and Ras Makonnen's entourage from Harrar to Addis Ababa. They arrived in Addis Ababa and walked into the Emperor's presence weeping and carrying a large portrait of the dead prince. Traditionaly, royalty in Ethiopia did not show emotion in public, so it stunned and moved the assembled courtiers when suddenly Emperor Menelik rose up from his throne, embraced the portrait of his dead cousin, and wept. He cried, "Makonnen my son, Makonnen my brother! I have lost my right hand!" -- Menelik did not expect the younger Ras Makonnen to predecease him. To the contrary, it was often speculated that because Menelik had no sons of his own, he might name Makonnen his heir. Of course, this was no longer possible.
Although Ras Makonnen had made clear that he had wanted Dejazmatch Taffari to succeed him as governor of Harrar, Menelik was not disposed to following through on that. Empress Taitu was especially opposed to Taffari inheriting Harrar, arguing that he was far too young. Instead, she argued for the appointment of the elder son of Ras Makonnen, Yilma, who had been at the Imperial Court for several years, and he was now given the title of Dejazmatch and appointed to succeed his father as governor. The Empress also arranged for Yilma to marry her neice. As "compensation" for losing Harrar, Dejazmatch Taffari was given the honorific governorship of Selale and told to remain at court where he became a member of the Emperor's personal retinue. Empress Taitu may have also advised this course of action because she suspected that the young prince may have been unduly influenced by the Roman Catholic priests that had been teaching him in Harrar. She may have suspected that he might have accepted the Catholic faith because he held so many of the progressive views of his father, views which were associated with westerners and Catholics. However, she would soon be reassured that he was firmly Orthodox as far as religion went. He was placed in the new school built in the capital for young nobles, the Menelik II School. This situation continued until in 1910 when his brother Yilma died, and Empress Taitu, acting on Menelik's behalf due to the Emperor's stroke, appointed Taffari to the governorship of Harrar. It was to be her last official act, as the very next day, the nobility led by Fitawrari Hapte Giorgis and Dejazmatch Gebre Selassie Baria Gabr deposed her and put power in the hands of the Lord Regent Ras Tessema. They limited the Empress to caring for the stricken Emperor. In 1913, Emperor Menelik II died, and Lij Eyasu ascended to the throne with Ras Tessema Nadew as his Regent. That same year, Ras Tessema died under mysterious circumstances, and Lij Eyasu took the reigns of government, even though he refused to be crowned as of yet. In 1916, Dejazmatch Taffari Makonnen was removed from Harrar by Lij Eyasu and appointed governor of Kaffa. Dejazmatch Taffari was very resentful of the loss of his birthright. In addition, Lij Eyasu, after taking Harrar for himself, moved into the governor's palace there and ordered that his niece, and Taffari's wife, Menen, be evicted immediately. Lij Eyasu was informed that Woizero Menen was in the midst of giving birth and could not possibly be moved (she was giving birth to Prince Asfa Wossen, later Emperor-in-Exile Amha Selassie). He resentfully agreed to allow his neice to give birth but ordered her to leave immediatly afterwards. This embittered already poor relations between Taffari and Eyasu. Not long after this, the nobles and ministers of the Empire began to openly express concern about the erratic behavior of the heir and his apparent sympathy for Islam. The diplomanic missions of the Entente Powers, concerned about Lij Eyasu's pro-German leanings, encouraged this dissension. Finally, the nobility, led by Fitawrari Hapte Giorgis, became convinced that Lij Eyasu had secretly converted to Islam. Following a two-day meeting at Jan Meda in Addis Ababa (the Imperial Parade Ground), the nobility convinced the reluctant Coptic Archbishop, Abune Mattiwos, to declare Lij Eyasu an apostate and release them from their oaths of loyalty to him. The nobles decided to swear fealty to the daughter of the late Emperor Menelik, and so Empress Zewditu was proclaimed Elect of God, Conquering Lion of Judah, and Queen of Kings at the feast of Maskal (Feast of the Holy Cross) which fell on September 27, 1916. Dejazmatch Taffari Makonnen was proclaimed Heir to the Throne and Crown Prince with the title of Ras as a compromise to progressives who were feeling relegated from the action which was being led by the conservative forces. Ras Taffari soon afterwards assumed the title of Regent and became the true ruler of the Empire.
His Imperial Highness Ras Taffari Makonnen, Crown Prince and Regent of The Ethiopian Empire, 1917
Her Imperial Highness Menen Asfaw, Crown Princess of Ethiopia
Ras Taffari Makonnen began to institute widespread reforms in order to bring Ethiopia into the modern age. In order to qualify for membership in the League of Nations, the Regent proclaimed the end of slavery in 1923. In addition, a school was established in Addis Ababa for former slaves. The first newspapers were established to disseminate the progressive views of the Crown Prince and his supporters to the people in order to win support. He also went on a tour of the Holy Land and the European capitals and was the highest-ranking member of the Imperial family (to that point in time) to ever travel abroad. He visited Rome and was greeted by the new Prime Minister, Benito Mussolini, as well as by King Vittorio Emanuelle. The King of Italy invested the Crown Prince of Ethiopia with the Order of the Annunziata, which entitled him to be called a "cousin" of the King of Italy (something that would be regarded with such irony only a few years later). He went on to Paris, Luxumbourg (where the reigning Grand Duchess gave birth to her heir, Grand Duke Jean, during his visit), Belgium, the Netherlands, and Britain in an official capacity and also paid private visits to Sweden and Germany. He met the Pope as well and received an honorary degree from Cambridge University. In an effort to convince the nobility of the Empire that the path of modernization and progress was the best way to guarantee Ethiopia's continued independence and future prosperity (as well as to keep a close eye on them), the Prince-Regent brought with him to Europe the leading nobles and aristocrats of his country. This exposure to the west, with its wealth, technology, and military might was instrumental in getting the nobility to relax their long-time conservative opposition to the progressive trends of the Prince and his predecessors, Emperors Menelik and Tewodros. However, he failed to convince France, Italy, or Britain to cede Ethiopia a sea port in one of their colonies. The Ethiopian delegation caused quite a stir in Europe and aroused the interest of many who were not aware of the only ancient independent state in Africa. Much comment was made on the impeccable aristocratic manners and traditions of the delegation and on the enlightened attitude of the Crown Prince. His desire to bring progress and education to his people was applauded in the European press. Among several anecdotes from this trip is one involving Ras Hailu Tekle Haimanot of Gojjam. This Prince was one of the most wealthy men in the Ethiopian Empire. He was the son of a king, and a man who carried himself as such. When the Crown Prince and his entourage were received by King George V and Queen Mary at Buckingham Palace, Ras Hailu, along with the other princes, were introduced to the King. King George in meeting Ras Hailu asked if His Highness could speak English. The interpreter said no. He asked if he could speak French or German, and again the answer was no. King George, rather irritated, told the interpreter to tell His Highness that he was an ignorant man. Ras Hailu listened quietly and asked the interpreter if His Majesty could speak Amharic. When told no, he asked him if His Majesty could speak Tigrigna or Guragigna, and again he was told no. The prince then haughtily told the interpreter to tell the King that His Majesty was equally ignorant. King George burst out laughing and took a great liking to Ras Hailu, Prince of Gojjam. Ethiopia was said to be opening up to the world.
His Imperial Highness Crown Prince Ras Tafari Makonnen, Regent of the Ethiopian Empire, preparing to meet Pope Pius XI in audience, accompanied by the Vatican secretary of State, Ethiopian Princes, nobility, and with clergy and nobility of the Vatican state, 1923
Upon his return, the Crown Prince was able to please the Empress with the news that the British government would be returning one of the crowns of Emperor Tewodros II that the Napier expedition had siezed and carried off from Magdala in 1867. However, he did have to face the deepening hostility to his modernizing zeal on the part of the conservative camp, led by Fitarwrari Hapte Giorgis (who had not accompanied him abroad) and the Archbishop Abune Mattiwos, who was displeased with the delegations call on the Pope in Rome. They rigorously opposed his every move towards modernizing the administration of the Empire, raising objections that the things the Prince wanted to do were "un-Ethiopian". Particularly, when told that slaves were to be freed, Fitawrari Hapte Giorgis is said to have sputtered with outrage, "...so is my wife to carry water on her back from the springs herself?!?" Upon the later deaths of these two powerful but elderly men, Ras Taffari was able to consolidate his power by co-opting much of the Fitawrarris personal forces and staff into his own and by postponing the appointment of a new Archbishop by entering into negotiations with the Coptic Patriarchate of Alexandria over the possibility of having an Ethiopian appointed to the post for the first time. The reluctance of the Patriarch to agree to this resulted in the Ethiopian-born Echege (Abbot of Debre Libanos Monastery) being the highest ranking cleric in Ethiopia, and he being much more in sympathy with the regent than the Archbishop had been, it was in the interests of the Prince to let things remain as they were and let the negotiations with the Holy See of St. Mark drag on. The power of the conservatives was thus greatly reduced. The Empress, although a staunch traditionalist, increasingly devoted her time and energies towards prayer and church building. She was never an effective leader for the forces of conservatism. Part of the reason for this behavior may have been a deep sense of guilt that she bore for having defied her father's will (replacing his designated heir on the throne) and also because of her deep sorrow at being forcefully separated from her husband. These events may have put her in a position of helplessness and at the mercy of her nobles. After a series of plots and counterplots, an attempt was made to arrest the Prince-Regent at the Imperial Palace by conservative elements in the cabinet, possibly with the Empress' knowledge and agreement. However, the Crown Prince's wife got wind of the plot and was able to alert him as well as send a force of his guards to the palace to liberate him. The Empress claimed ignorance of the plot, although it had been carried out in her name. Progressives and modernizers in the nobility and the army held an unprecedented demonstation in support of Ras Taffari on the grounds of the palace. In order to appease the angry progressives who rallied to the Crown Prince, the Empress agreed to crown him king. In November of 1928, Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia crowned Taffari Makonnen as King and Heir to the Throne of Ethiopia. It was an unusual arangment as the King would remain in the capital with the Empress and that no territory (such as Wollo or Gondar) was given him with the title. It was assumed that he was king of all Ethiopia , which was an unprecedented situation. His coronation as Nigus was regarded as a dress rehearsal of sorts for his eventual coronation as Niguse Negest. He would later see to it that no one else would ever be crowned king once he became Emperor.
Taffari Makonnen, King and Heir to the Throne, 1928
With the eventuality of his becoming Emperor all the more likely now, the new King began to accelerate the process of getting an Archbishop from Alexandria. Although the Copts had been staunch in refusing to name an Ethiopian to the post, the Ethiopians were able to get the Patriarch to appoint four Ethiopian-born suffrugan bishops to serve under the Egyptian Archbishop. The new Egyptian-born Archbishop Kyrilos and the Ethiopian-born Bishops Petros, Abraham, Markos and Lukas were all consicrated in Alexandria and arrived in Ethiopia soon afterwards. The Ethiopian Church was jubilant to have so many bishops at once, as well as four native-born bishops. A year later, upon the occasion of the visit of the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria to Ethiopia , he consicrated the Echege of Debre Libanos as the fifth Ethiopian-born Bishop with the name Sauiros.
Abune Kyrilos, last Egyptian-born Archbishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (sometimes he was erroneously known as Patriarch)
Dejazmatch Balcha Saffo, known as "Balcha Abba Nefso"
The day after the death of Empress Zewditu, Nigus Taffari Makonnen was proclaimed Emperor Haile Selassie I, Elect of God, Conquering Lion of Judah, and King of Kings of Ethiopia. His wife became Empress Menen of Ethiopia, and his children all assumed the titles of Prince and Princess.
Emperor Haile Selassie I, Conquering Lion of Judah, Elect of God, and King of Kings of Ethiopia in full Coronation Regalia
On November 1, 1930, the new Emperor of Ethiopia paid his respects to his illustrous predecessor by erecting a equestrian statue of Emperor Menelik II in front of the Cathedral of St. George. Addis Ababa's streets were newly repaved, electrical lights were put up, and unsightly slums cleaned up for the spectacle that would follow the next day. On November 2, 1930, Haile Sellasie I was crowned Emperor of Ethiopia by the Coptic Archbishop, Abune Kyrillos, at the Cathedral of St. George. His wife was also crowned as Empress and Crown Prince Asfa Wossen anointed as Heir to the Throne. The coronation was the most splendid yet -- the Emperor and Empress were driven to the Cathedral in an open car as footmen riding behind them held red velvet umbrellas, heavily embroidered in gold, over their heads on November 1st. After an all-night vigil at the Cathedral, the foreign guests arrived to witness the anointing and crowning of the Imperial couple and the anointing of the crown prince. Around the outdoor dias were four large live lions, chained to the platform on which the Emperor sat with gold chains. The Emperor and Empress were crowned outdoors in front of the Cathedral and enthroned there as cannons boomed a 100-gun salute, church bells rang, women ulultated, and men cheered. The Imperial family, under a large portable gold-encrusted canopy of red velvet, joined the upper nobility and clergy along with the foreign delegations and entered the cathedral to hear mass. The coronation was witnessed by royalty and important dignitaries from around the world. Representing the British Empire was H.R.H. Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, son of King George V, brother to Kings Edward VIII and George VI, and uncle to Queen Elizabeth II. Representing Italy was H.R.H. Prince Eugenio Di Savoia, Duke of Udine, cousin of the King of Italy. France was represented by Marshal Franchet D'Esperry. The King of Belgium was represented by Monseiur Gerard, the King of Sweden by Baron Dabells, the Queen of the Netherlands by Mr. Unhar Hersmadd, the Emperor of Japan by Baron Ezbur, the King of Egypt by Tewfik Nessim Pasha, the Greek government by Count Metaxis, the government of Turkey by Muhitin Pasha, the government of Poland by Count David Bazaki, the President of Germany by Baron Balthaussen, and the President of the United States by Mr. Jacobi. The international press was also present -- a first for Ethiopian coronations. Following the church ceremonies, the Emperor and Empress boarded the former Imperial Coach of Germany, which had been purchased from the German government earlier. Thousands of Ethiopian subjects and nobles lined the streets to the palace and witnessed the procession -- the last coronation the country would see.
The Official Coronation Portrait of Their Imperial Majesties, Emperor Haile Selassie and Empress Menen of Ethiopia
National Geographic took photographs of the Emperor in his coronation robes and covered the events in their next issue. The pagentry did not go off without a glitch, however. During welcoming ceremonies for the foreign delegations, there was one significant event that caused minor disruption. As Crown Prince in 1923, the Emperor had visited Jerusalem. While there, the Armenian Patriarch and Catholicos of Jerusalem had met him and told him of the plight of the large number of Armenian orphans being raised by the Patriarchate and the financial dificulty this had placed on the patriarchate. These children were among the survivors of the huge massacres of Armenians by the Turks a few years earlier. The then-Crown Prince had decided to help the Armenian Patriarch by taking some of these orphans to Ethiopia to raise them in a country that shared the Oriental Orthodox heritage of their dead parents. These Armenian youths had formed a marching band in Ethiopia that played at many public events, including at the Palace as well for Imperial occasions of state. During the welcoming ceremonies before the coronation, they would play the national anthem of whichever delegation was arriving at the train station. When the Turkish delegation arrived, the Armenian youths staunchly refused to play the Turkish anthem, causing the Emperor to be very embarrassed and quite angry. The Emperor decided to put the matter before the senior princes and nobles in council to decide how to punish the Armenians for disobeying the monarch. When the council demanded an explanation from the band, the Armenians tearfully replied that it was against their conscience to honor those who had butchered their fathers and mothers. Much moved, the council agreed that it was too much to expect the Armenians to honor the representative of Turkey , so they recommended that they not be punished. The Emperor agreed and the Armenians were allowed to disobey the Emperor and refuse to play the Turkish National Anthem as it was in violation of the commandment "Honor your Father and Mother". Among the guests at the coronation was the novelist Evlyn Waugh, who would one day be a major defender and apologist for the fascists and Mussolini's invasion and occupation of Ethiopia .
Ras Birru Wolde Gabriel at the time of Emperor Haile Selassie's coronoation. The Ras was often rumored to be the illegitimate son of Emperor Menelik II
Emperor Haile Selassie I and Empress Menen of Ethiopia at their Coronation, November 2nd, 1930
Emperor Haile Selassie began an aggressive program of modernization and centralization of the structure of the state. He ordered the drafting of the first written constitution for the Empire, which was completed and promulgated in 1931. The First Imperial Constitution, which borrowed heavily from the Meiji Constitution of Japan, provided for a Parliament for the first time in Ethiopian History. The Parliament was composed of two houses, a House of Deputies (lower house) and an Imperial Senate (upper house). The Senate was comprised of high nobles and important personages who were appointed to their seats by the Emperor. The lower house was made up of land owners and was also filled by appointment of the Emperor. Although the structure of this new constitution maintained the absolute power of the monarhcy, it set down the rights of the people. As was traditional, the Supreme Court of Ethiopia remained the Emperor's Chilot, where the Emperor heard the cases himself and passed down the final verdict. Every subject had the right to appeal to this court and to be heard. The ministries were staffed with men who shared the Emperor's progressive views and advisors were employed from abroad to help them in their work. The cabinet of ministers established by Menelik II was expanded and, under the new constitution, it had an advisory role to the monarch as well as running the day-to-day affairs of state. Emperor Haile Selassie, being the type of person he was, however, was not one to let others do the work of state. He was very active early in his reign with the most minute details of government. However, as he grew older, and the government grew in size and in function, he began to have less and less of a role. The Emperor had no Prime Minister, but the Tsehafi Te-ezaz, a traditional title that had been converted into the Minister of the Pen in the modern cabinet, was the most senior of the ministers. After 1961, however, the Emperor decided to appoint a Prime Minister to take on more of the Policy formulation role in government. Early in his reign, though, there were not enough educated Ethiopians to take on the responsibilities this would entail. The Emperor also used the restructuring of the government to severely curtail the powers of the aristocracy and the regional princely and noble families. The 1931 constitution limited the succession to the Imperial Throne not only to the House of Solomon, but within the House -- to direct decendants of Emperor Haile Selassie. This limit on the Imperial succession caused considerable unhappiness among the Princes of the Imperial blood who were expected to sign away their potential claims to the throne by endorsing the constitution, particularly Ras Hailu of Gojjam and the princes of Tigrai, Ras Gugsa and Ras Seyoum. Ras Kassa Hailu himself, a firm ally of the Emperor in most matters and a man who had refused to be considered for the throne himself, was not the least bit pleased that his descendants should be excluded in this manner. He pled illness and was not present for the signing of the constitution -- he did not sign it. The Emperor encouraged the spread of modern education and sponsored many young Ethiopians to go to Europe to study. He built the Haile Selassie I Hospital (known today as the Yekatit 22) and several schools. In addition, a modern military was being developed with the aid of European advisors. The Swedes trained his Imperial Guard and the Belgians his Imperial Army. He received the Crown Prince of Sweden, Gustav Adolph, and his wife for a state visit and housed them in the newly-built Guenete Leul Palace, built on the site of his father's old house. After the visit, the Emperor and Empress moved in to the new palace themselves, and it became known as the Little Guibi (the Menelik or Imperial Palace being the Great Guibi). Ethiopia sought to emulate Japan in its development strategies, something that the colonial powers in the region were not very pleased about.
Empress Menen (possibly shortly before the birth of H.I.H. Prince Sahle Selassie)
Ras Hailu Tekle Haimanot, Prince of Gojjam
It was during this time, late 1931, that Lij Eyasu escaped from his detention at Selale. He was hunted down, captured, and re-imprisoned -- this time in much less comfortable circumstances at Gara Muleta in Harrar. Eyasuism would continue to be a thorn in the side of the government. Lij Eyasu himself would remain a prisoner, but among the people of Wollo and among various elements in the nobility, there were strong feelings that he was the true and legitimate heir to Menelik II and this belief would persist for a long time. Upon the recapture of Lij Eyasu, it was found that he had been aided by his former father-in-law, the Prince of Gojjam, Leul Ras Hailu Tekle Haimanot, in concert with the Italian colonial authorities in Eritrea. The Gojjami prince, who previously had been convicted of conspiracy to murder someone, was now sentenced to life imprisonment. Behind his plot to restore his ex-son-in-law was Hailu's deep resentment at not having been made King of Gojjam in succession to his late father, Tekle Haimanot. Ras Hailu was a fabulously wealthy man, and he may have well been the richest man in the Empire. He taxed Gojjam brutally and owned lavish homes both at his seat in Gojjam at Debre Markos and in the capital. His relations with his brothers, Ras Bezabeh and Dejazmatch Bellew, were not warm, and all three brothers at various times had quareled with their father and sought the protection of Menelik. Menelik II, always partial to the King of Gojjam, never tried to undermine him by using his sons against him, but he rather counseled the sons to honor their father. Tekle Haimanot was aware of this and appreciated it. Upon Tekle Haimanot's death, his widow Laquech Gebre Medhin, sister of Emperor Tekle Giorgis III, wanted to rule Gojjam as successor to her husband as did both Bezabih and Bellew, who were at court with Menelik. Her argument was that her stepsons had behaved badly toward their father and so she should be considered his heir. Bezabih had married Lij Eyasu's sister Zenebework, but it was Seyoum (who changed his name to Hailu) who ended up with the bulk of Gojjam. Now though, Emperor Haile Selassie was determined not to create anymore vassal kings within the Empire, following Menelik's example. Menelik had chosen to recognize Tekle Haimanot as king of Gojjam because that title had been granted by Yohannis IV, but he didn't create any Kings elsewhere as he could have. Lij Eyasu had created his father King of Wollo, and Zewditu had made her cousin Wolde Giorgis King of Gondar, but the new Emperor was having none of that. The Tigrean and Gojjami royals were created "Leul" or Prince and their wives granted the title of "Lielt" or Princess. Thus, Rases Seyoum Mengesha and Gugsa Araya (succeeded by Dejazmatch Haile Selassie Gugsa) in Tigrai, Hailu, Bezabih, and Bellew (succeeded by Hailu Bellew) in Gojjam, and Kassa Hailu, and Imiru Haile Selassie in Shewa, made up a tier of "Princes of the Blood". They were royals with Solomonic blood who surrounded the throne of Haile Selassie, but they knew that they could never hope to be made kings in his reign. Ras Hailu was resentful, and his aid to Lij Eyasu was probably in reaction to this. With his imprisonment, the Emperor replaced him with Ras Imiru, his own cousin, and sent representatives of the central government to take over Hailu's property and the entire province of Gojjam, thereby bringing it under the direct rule of the central government and ending the reign of the Gojjam branch of the dynasty in the province. His nephew, Ras Hailu Bellew, would briefly govern Gojjam in the 1950's.
From Left to Right, Her Imperial Majesty Empress Menen, His Imperial Higness Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen, His Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile Selassie, and His Imperial Highness Prince Makonnen, Duke of Harrar, 1931
The Emperor continued with his modernizing zeal. Foreign advisors were appointed to assist in advising and helping to set up a modern administration and bureaucracy in the various ministries. The cadre of young educated people, known as the "Young Ethiopians", made up a new domestic intelligentsia which was rooted in progressive and modernist philosopy and relied on by the Emperor to carry out his plans for the Empire. They were eager and willing to work hard towards this goal. The Emperor continued to promote men of humble background to positions of the highest responsibility at the expense of the traditional nobility. The commoners, he believed, would be more directly loyal to him because they would owe him their education and high station and be more likely to act in his interests. The Emperor considered his old nobility too conservative and too ambitious of their own family interests to promote. The aristocracy was increasingly resentful of the commoners that the Emperor seemed to favor, and they campaigned for him to return to appointing people from the noble classes to powerful posts. The Emperor decided to balance one group against the other by creating the Crown Council. The Cabinet of Ministers would eventually be dominated by commoners with a few nobles here and there, while the Crown Council would be dominated by the Aristocracy with a few commoners included. This situation was the backdrop to the Ethio-Italian conflict of 1936 and the prelude to World War II.
Her Imperial Majesty Empress Menen, 1930
Her Imperial Majesty Empress Menen was born in Wollo in 1889. She was the daughter of Jantirar Asfaw of Ambassel, and his wife, Woizero Sehin Michael. Woizero Sehin was the daughter of King Michael of Wollo and half sister of Lij Eyasu. Through King Michael, Empress Menen could trace her ancestry back to Emperor Fasiledes and also to the Prophet Mohammed. Empress Menen had been married three times prior to her marriage to Emperor Haile Selassie -- her husband immediately before the Emperor had been Ras Leulseged Atnafseged. From her first husband, Empress Menen had two children, Woizero Belainesh Ali and Jantirar Asfaw Ali. From her second marriage, she had two more children, Jantirar Gebre Igziabiher Amede and Woizero Desta Amede. She had no children from her brief marriage to Ras Leulseged. The Empress thus had ten children altogether and the Emperor therefore had four step-children. Empress Menen married Emperor Haile Selassie on July 30, 1910 while he was still Dejazmatch Taffari Makonnen of Harrar. Unlike her previous marriages, this one was a church wedding with a communion service -- thus the only one of her marriages recognized by the Orthodox Church. The marriage is said to have been promoted by the Lord Regent, Ras Tessema Nadew, and Fitawrari Hapte Giorgis Denagde in order to tie Dejazmatch Taffari more closely to Lij Eyasu and ensure his loyalty. Some say Lij Eyasu ordered his paternal niece to marry his maternal cousin while others say he actively promoted the match after the couple first met at his home in Addis Ababa and were smitten. Whatever one believes, what is certain is that their marriage proved very successful and long-lasting. The Emperor and Empress celebrated their golden wedding aniversary in 1960. Her Imperial Majesty died in 1961, after 51 years of marriage, at the age of 71. She had been Empress of Ethiopia for 32 years at the time of her death. She was buried at Holy Trinity Cathedral in Addis Ababa.
His Imperial Majesty around the time of the Italian Invasion of 1935
Ever since the crushing defeat of the Italian Army at Adowa in 1896, Italian officials, especially colonial ones, had chaffed at the lack of revenge or restoration of their honor. Revenge for Adowa was considered essential for Italian prestige in Europe. Italian colonies in Libya, Italian (southern) Somaliland, and Eritrea were unprofitable, and, in the case of Libya, unstable. The Italians increasingly saw Ethiopia as their natural hinterland for their Somaliland and Eritrean colonies. A vast territory of industrious people, fertile soil, untapped mineral wealth, and the prestige of ancient empire were a prize that they were simply unwilling to pass up for good. The fact that relations between Ethiopia and Italy had been outwardly warm since the war of 1896 was no deterrent. As Crown Prince and Regent, the Emperor had visited Rome in 1923 and met with King Victor Emmanuelle and Queen Helena, as well as Italy 's brand new Premier, a vulgar braggart and demagogue named Benito Mussolini. During the visit of Prince Regent Tafari, the leader of the Socialists in the Italian Parliament and a vocal opponent to Mussolini's fascism, mysteriously disappeared. A rascist cartoon in a Rome Daily depicted the Ethiopian Prince asking el Duce if he had eaten his opponent, as if that were typical behavior for Ethiopian leaders to eat their enemies. The Italian and Ethiopian governments renewed the treaty of Friendship and Commerce, and the King of Italy decorated the Prince with the Order of the Annunziata, entitling him to be called a "cousin" of the King of Italy. The Prince of Udine (later made king of the fascist puppet state in Croatia), an actual cousin of the King of Italy, had even attended the Emperor's coronation in 1930. At the same time, the new fascist government was laying down plans for the eventual conquest of the Ethiopian Empire. The excuse that Italy needed was provided by the infamous Wal Wal incident and the un-demarcated border between Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland. Wal Wal was a outpost in the Ogaden desert that had wells used by the Somali nomads which freely crossed between British, French, and Italian Somalilands and the Ethiopian Ogaden. The treaty that set down the border between Italian Somaliland and Ethiopia stated that the border ran parallel to the Benadir coast of Somalia at a distance of 21 leagues. What was unstated was if this meant 21 standard leagues or 21 nautical leagues. The Italians insisted on the nautical leagues, as this would push the border further inland, while the Ethiopians maintained it was absurd to claim that the treaty used nautical leagues to measure a distance on dry land. Nevertheless, a contingent of Italian soldiers occupied the wells at Wal Wal and built a small fort on what Ethiopia claimed was clearly Ethiopian territory and had been administered by the Ethiopians. Ethiopian territorial troops, under the command of Fitawrarri Shiferaw (posthumously created a Dejazmatch), confronted the Italians, and, after repeated requests for the Italians to leave the site, gunfire was exchanged. The fighting grew fierce and Italian airplanes bombed Ethiopian positions. Ethiopia complained to the League of Nations, calling on the collective security agreements embodied in the charter to be invoked and applied. The Italians railed that it was Ethiopia that had attacked an Italian fortification. The Emperor assumed that the League would protect all members from aggression once the victimized party was ascertained. In order to leave no doubt as to who was the aggressor, and in a move that showed exactly how much faith he had put in the League, the Emperor ordered all Ethiopian forces to withdraw from large areas along the borders with Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. In the meantime, Italy charged that its honor had been impinged. Ethiopia was depicted at the League as a savage and barbarous land where slavery and brutality were the common way of life, a land that did not deserve to be treated equally with "civilized countries". Ethiopia was urged to find a way to accommodate the "civilizing influence" of Italy in the Ogaden and even in Tigrai in the north. The Ethiopian government refused all such urgings as impinging on its sovereignty. In November 1935, thousands of Italian troops (accompanied by even more native colonial "Askari" troops) crossed into Tigrai from Eritrea in the north under the command of Feild Marshal De Bono, an elderly and cautious officer who planned to progress slowly into the Empire. They were quickly followed by similar forces from Italian Somaliland in the south and east, commanded by Marshal Graziani.
The Emperor inspects a gun on the northern front
The fact that Italy had crossed deep into Ethiopian territory left little doubt as to who the aggressor was, but there was still little will to stop the aggression. The Emperor had put complete faith in the League and had resisted the calls of his nobles to declare war because he believed that the League would live up to the charter and rush in to protect his country. The Emperor's logic was that the doctrine of "Collective Security" would obligate the League to protect Ethiopia. An attack on one member of the League was supposed to be regarded as an attack on all the members. It was this protection that had inspired him to join the League in the first place back when he was still Prince-Regent and faced with a hostile nobility which wanted no part of the "foreigner's" League. However, at the time, Hitler was preparing to annex Austria , and the leading voice against this was Mussolini. Britain and France hoped to use Mussolini as a bulwark against German designs on Austria and thus did not want alienate Mussolini over what they considered an unimportant African remnant. Not only were they not going to help Ethiopia, but France went so far as to forbid the import of weapons into Ethiopia on the Addis Ababa - Djibouti railway. Instead, they encouraged mild sanctions on Italy that did not include the important petroleum used for military trucks and tanks; thus, the sanctions were esentially useless. The Foriegn Ministers of France and Britain (Laval and Hoare) were secretly negotiating a solution that would involve Ethiopia handing over the Ogaden and most of Tigrai to the Italians, grant English hegemony over the basin of the Blue Nile, and the French control of the area adjacent to the railroad to Djibouti. The Emperor would be left with a truncated Empire composed of Shewa and Wello, with bits and pieces of the Tigrean and Oromo territories. In essence, he would be firmly placed under an Italian protectorate. The Hoare/Laval plan was denounced by supporters of the Ethiopian cause in Europe when it was leaked, and the Ethiopians were generally scandalized. The Emperor had no choice left to him but to try and fight an enemy that had massive material resources prepared to defeat him. The great negarit (war drum) of Menelik was beaten at the Palace in Addis Ababa , and war was formally declared. Thousands of irregulars, mostly armed with old guns from the last century and swords, spears and shields, marched north to confront the huge Italian force which was equipped with modern tanks, machine guns, artillery, and airplanes armed with bombs and poison gas. Even the modern regular army created by the Emperor was ill-equipped to face this technological onslaught; many of the soldiers even marched barefoot. Emperor Haile Selassie knew that a military solution was futile, but he was determined to fight on militarily and diplomatically until such time as he hoped the League acted. The Empress mobilized the women of Addis Ababa in making bandages and provisions for the soldiers. She presided over the Ethiopian Red Cross and became its patron. The Emperor established his northern-front headquarters at Dessie and commanded the troops against the Italians. The Italians in the north were led by Marshal De Bono, a senior officer of the Royal Italian army with weak ties to the Fascist hierarchy. His cautious and slow approach to the invasion of northern Ethiopia was regarded with deep impatience by Mussollini, who believed that De Bono was dragging his feet. In the meantime, the Ethiopian Imperial family was horrified when they learned that the Emperor's son-in-law, Dejazmatch Haile Selassie Gugsa, had crossed over to the Italians. Dejazmatch Haile Selassie was the husband of the late Princess Zenebework,and the great-grandson of Emperor Yohannis IV. His action is said to have been caused by his resentment at not having been made king of Tigrai or at least Ras. This act of betrayal caused him to still be remembered in Ethiopia as the ultimate traitor against his country. The Tigrean locals looted his home in Mekele in anger. Photographs were taken of him sitting at a table looking over maps with Marshal De Bono and his staff -- publicized by the Italians to show Ethiopian nobles that they could expect good treatment if they collaborated with the Fascists. In the meantime, Ethiopian troops were being pounded by tanks, heavy artillery, airplanes, and finally poison gas and liquids. Use of poison gas had been strictly prohibited by the Geneva conventions, yet the world did nothing to stop Italy . Special spraying mechanisms were installed on the aircraft so that poisonous substances could be sprayed directly onto the land, poisoning not just soldiers, but peasants, cattle, fields, and bodies of water. Italy even bombed Red Cross ambulances and clearly-marked treatment camps that were run by the British and French Red Cross. Rases Imiru, Kassa, Seyum, Getachew, and Mulugueta led armies in the north that fought valiantly, but they were beaten back by the slow advance of De Bono and his well-armed troops. Impatient with the slow pace of the war, Mussollini removed De Bono and replaced him with Marshal Badoglio. As the Italians battled through Tigrai and northern Beghemider with the forces of Rases Seyoum, Imiru, and Kassa, the Emperor assembled his forces and prepared to meet the fascist invader at Mai Chew in southern Tigrai. Shortly before the battle, the Emperor is said to have given a great traditional Giber Feast in a cave near Mai Chew. Some believe that constant delays in attacking the Italians cost the Ethiopian side the element of suprise at Mai Chew. Although they fought valiantly, it was in vain, and the Ethiopian forces were smashed by the Italians and began to retreat in haste. Taking this opportunity, Raya and Azebo tribesmen attacked the retreating forces of the Emperor in revenge for a recent raid to stop them from raiding and rustling cattle and in anger over the just announced death of Lij Eyasu, who many of them still regarded as their rightful monarch.
Italian Dictator Benito Mussolini
Oddly, while the army retreated in disarray, the Emperor seemed to retreat in leisure. He did not retreat with the army but instead behind it, a dangerous situation that upset some of his advisors as dangerous. The monarch had perhaps given up on earthly powers and was turning to higher authorities. Emperor Haile Selassie paid a secret visit to the churches at Lalibella to pray, taking the time to visit the distant church of Our Lady at the summit of Mt. Asheten as well. This trip was a huge detour that extended his retreat considerably and dangerously. Finally, the Emperor finished his prayers and then proceeded out of Wello and on to Addis Ababa . Upon his arrival, an emergency meeting of war leaders and nobles was held at the palace to decide what the next action should be. It was agreed that Addis Ababa would be impossible to defend and that in the interests of preserving the Imperial house, the Empress and the Imperial family should immediately leave for Djibouti and board an English ship for Palestine. A debate was held as to what the Emperor himself and the government should do. Some believed that it would be best to re-locate the government to Gore in the remote south. The Emperor agreed with this and ordered that it be done immediately. It was then discussed whether it would be wise for the Emperor to move with the government to Gore and fight on or to instead leave with his family and present the plea of the Ethiopian people in person before the League of Nations in Geneva. One of his long-time supporters and fellow modernists, Blatta Takkele angrily stated that an Ethiopian Emperor had never fled a battle and that Emperor Haile Selassie should die in the glory of battle rather than go into exile and beg for the help of European colonialists. Ironically, it was the chief voice of conservatism, Ras Kassa Hailu, who just as forcefully argued against this traditionalist position championed by a modernist. The premier prince of the blood argued that if the Emperor stayed and was killed or captured, the cause of Ethiopia would be finished as the forces of opposition to the Italians fragmented. By staying alive and safe abroad, he could appeal for assistance and return some day to fight again, keeping hope alive for the resistance. The Empress also pulled the Emperor aside and stressed her agreement with this position. She added that he should come with her to Jerusalem and pray for the deliverance of their country with her. Blatta Takelle is said to have horrified the assembled courtiers by threatening to draw his gun and saying that he would rather shoot the Emperor himself rather than have his country abandoned by her king. The Emperor made his decision. On the morning of May 3rd, 1936, the Emperor, Empress Menen, Crown Prince Asfaw Wossen (with Crown Princess Wollete Israel and Princess Ijigayehu, their daughter), Princess Tenagnework and her children, Princesses Aida, Seble, Sophia, Hirut, Princess Amha and Iskinder Desta, Princess Tsehai, Prince Makonnen Duke of Harrar, and Prince Sahle Selassie, along with numerous nobles and officials, boarded the train to Djibouti. Crowds assembled to see them off, and, as the trian pulled out, the crowds began to wail. When news that the Emperor had fled began to spread, panic set in. The government packed up and departed hurriedly for Gore. The Emperor had appointed his cousin Ras Imiru as Prince-Regent and Commander-in-Chief. Ras Desta Damtew, the Emperor's son-in-law and husband of Princess Tenagnework, was to continue in command of the Imperial forces in the south. The remnants of the northern Armies were directed to join him or Ras Imiru immediately. Dejazmatch Beyene Merid, husband of the Emperor's eldest daughter, Princess Romanework (from his first marriage), remained in command of troops in Bale, under the general command of Ras Desta. Princess Romanework and her two little sons remained behind with the Dejazmatch rather than go into exile. The chief of the Addis Ababa police, Balambaras (later Ras) Abebe Aregai, began to organize a guerrilla army, set fire to key structures that he didn't want the Italians to seize and marched out of the city. With the departure of the Imperial family, the exit of the government and of the army, disorder began to take root as the residents realized that the city was on the verge of falling to the hated Italians. Many began to loot and burn, and foreign nationals fled to the safety of the compounds of the various diplomatic missions.
Vittorio Emannuelle III, King of Italy, proclaimed "Emperor of Ethiopia " by Mussolini
On May 5, 1936, the armies of Fascist Italy, led by Marshal Pietro Badoglio, marched into Addis Ababa and occupied the city. That very day, Benito Musollini went out onto the balcony of the Venezia Palace in Rome and declared that " Ethiopia is Italian" before huge throngs of cheering Romans. The King of Italy emerged on the balcony as the dictator proclaimed him Vittorio Emannuelle, King of Italy and Emperor of Ethiopia before the wildly cheering masses. The new "King-Emperor" of the new "Italian Empire" bestowed the title of "Duke of Addis Ababa" as a hereditary title upon Marshal Badoglio. He also bestowed the title of Marchese of Neghelli on Marshal Graziani, the commander of the Ialian troops that seized Harrar. Mussolini appointed Badoglio as the Vice-Roy (Vice-re) in what would henceforth be referred to as "Africa Orientale Italiana" or Italian East Africa -- combining Ethiopia with the Italian colonies of Somaliland and Eritrea. The title of Niguse Negest (King of Kings), which had been used by the Emperors of Ethiopia, was not used for the King of Italy. His new Imperial title over Ethiopia would be Keasare Ityopia (Caesar of Ethiopia) in an echo of Italian pretensions to ancient empire. The Italian flag was raised over the palace of Menelik, and the Italians began to set up colonial administration as they continued the military campaign to stamp out the resistance in the south.
The Emperor mans an anti-aircraft gun during the Battle of Maichew
In the meantime, Emperor Haile Selassie and his family were entering Djibouti. As the Emperor had left, he had ordered two prominent prisoners be brought to him and put on the train. They were Ras Hailu Tekle Haimanot, the disgraced Prince of Gojjam, and Dejazmatch Balcha Saffo, the great general of Adowa and servant of Menelik, who had tried to rebel against the then-King Taffari on behalf of Empress Zewditu and the conservatives. He addressed these prisoners by telling them that, although he recognized that they did not favor him, he hoped that their love of their country would guide them in their actions, and he released them. Ras Hailu promptly boarded a train for Addis Ababa and submitted to the Italian forces. He would serve them loyally for the duration of the occupation, and, in return, he was recognized as the senior "native noble". Dejazmatch Balcha, however, was a different sort of man. Although aged and very bitter towards the Emperor (whom he continued to contemptuously refer to as Taffari), he retained a strong love of his country, an unshakable loyalty to Emperor Menelik, and a deep hatred of Italy going back to the Adowa campaign. He and a band of followers became guerrilla fighters who harrassed and made life difficult for the Italian occupiers for months on end. Finally, when his troops were almost all dead, and he himself was exhausted and had little hope of success, Dejazmatch Balcha sent a message to the local Italian commander near Harrar and announced that he was prepared to surrender to him and to meet at a specific locale. The officer, accompanied by an appropriate guard in dress uniform, went to recieve the surrender. The found the old Oromo nobleman, wrapped in a traditional white shawl, sitting under a large tree. As they approached him, he cried out to "Menelik my master" and pulled out a machine gun, killing all the senior officers before being gunned down himself. He is upheld as a great hero of the resistance to this day.
Ras Hailu Tekle Haimanot, Prince of Gojjam
Dejazmatch Balcha Saffo (Abba Nefso)
Film exists of the arrival of the Imperial family of Ethiopia and their retinue at Djibouti . They received a state welcome by the French Governor of the colony. The Empress is shown wearning a large hat covered by a heavy veil, but eye-witness accounts state that she wept through the whole proceedings. Two trains arrived in Djibouti carrying many people into exile with the family. Ethiopians resident in the French colony lined the roads in Djibouti to see for themselves if the Imperial family had gone into exile for the first time in history. When they saw that it was indeed a somber Haile Selassie and a weeping Empress, they too were seen to weep according to the Illustrated Times of London. An English ship had been directed to pick up the Emperor of Ethiopia and convey him to Palestine . When the ship arrived, it was determined that not all of the people that had gone into exile with the Emperor would be allowed to board the ship for Palestine, and when the Imperial family and a small group of followers (about half of those who had arrived on the two trains) boarded the ship and set sail, those anguished people left behind stood on the docks and wailed and wept as the monarch departed. The Emperor relates in his autobiography how some Ethiopian men and women resident in Egypt rented a boat as his ship passed through Port Said and sailed next to it, waving an Ethiopian flag. When he came out on deck to acknowledge them, he broke down and wept. The Illustrated Times of London printed photographs of the Imperial couple arriving at Haifa with the Emperor and Empress looking dejected. They proceeded to Jerusalem to pray and to settle in while the Emperor prepared to present Ethiopia 's case to the League of Nations at Geneva.
Foreground, left to right, Princess Tsehai, Prince Makonnen, Duke of Harrar, His Imperial Majesty the Emperor, Crown Prince Asfa Wossen, all in London during their exile. Behind the Emperor's left shoulder is Dr. Workineh Eshete (A.K.A. Charles Martin), Ethiopian Minister to the Court of St. James